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Реферат: Will Russia be a Rising State a Great Failure? (Иностранные языки)
Will Russia be a rising state or a great Failure?
The collapse of the Soviet Union lead to creation of the New
Independent Republic. World politics dramatically changed in 1991 when
Communism ended in Eastern Europe and Russia. These republics are trying to
rebuild their economies and find the way toward the democratic regimes. The
largest country in the post-Soviet borders Russia has inherited a legacy of
the Soviet Union. Many features influence the Russian society and economy
which are Russian media, Russia-US relations and the problems Russia faces
in its transition to the democratic society with a market economy.
Russians are trying to reconstruct their economy and social system.
Russia has many challenges and obstacles to overcome during their period of
reconstruction. These obstacles include the destruction of the economic
ties with its former suppliers and customers in the United Republics,
corruption, war in Chechnya as well as “Checheny syndrome”. Russia will
cope with these obstacles and finally rise as a world power with a market
economy and strong democratic institutions. Its potential is based on its
vast lands full of natural resources, great history, and, most importantly,
the intellectual potential of the Russian people.
Russian territory has historically had a tremendous impact on the
Russian economy, political situation, culture, traditions, and mentality of
Russian people. Vast space has helped Russia many times to defend itself
from other more developed nations. For example, Napoleon froze his army to
death during his invasion to Moscow.
Russia is very rich in natural resources. Almost all the elements of
periodic table are in Russia. Russia is rich in gold, silver, gas and oil,
lumber, aluminum, uranium and many other valuable minerals. These resources
can be very attractive prospects for future investments.
Historically, Russia has been regarded as a major world power. Slavic
peoples settled in Eastern Europe during the early Christian era. Many
converted to Christianity in the ninth and tenth centuries. In 988, Prince
Vladimir declared Christianity the state's official religion. Early in the
13th century, Mongols conquered the Slavs and ruled for 240 years. The
Slavs finally defeated the Mongols in 1480 to regain their sovereignty. In
1547, Ivan the Terrible (1533-84) was the first Russian ruler crowned Czar
of Russia. He expanded Russia's territory, as did Peter the Great (1682-
1724) and Catherine the Great (1762-96). The empire reached from Warsaw in
the west to Vladivostok in the east. In 1814, Russian troops that had
defeated France's Napoleon marched on Paris, and Russia took its place as
one of the most powerful states on earth.
When Czar Nicholas II abdicated during World War 1, Vladimir Lenin,
head of the Bolshevik Party, led the 1917 revolt that brought down the
provisional government and put the Communists in power. Lenin disbanded the
legislature and banned all other political parties. A civil war between
Lenin's Red Army and the White Army lasted until 1921, with Lenin
victorious.
In 1922, the Bolsheviks formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR) and forcibly incorporated Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine,
Belarus and Central Asian republic into the union. The unification of
Turkestan and separation of the United Republics gave a birth to the modern
states of Uzbekistan, Kazakstan, Tadjikistan and Turkmenistan. During
Lenin's rule, which ended with his death in 1924, many died as a result of
his radical social restructuring. Under Lenin, a plan to rise the national
economics of the United Republic as well as itself was implemented. If
before Russia had below than 10% literacy level than after World War II due
to reforms started by Lenin almost all population could read and write.
Currently, Russian literacy level equals to 99%.
Lenin was followed by Joseph Stalin, a dictator who forced
industrialization and collective agriculture on the people. Millions died
in labor camps and from starvation. The Nobel Price laureate, Alexandr
Soljenicin, in One Day of Ivan Denisovich characterizes this period as “the
most devastating trial fallen on Russian soul”. While many historians argue
that these sacrifices were necessary to meet the new challenges and make
Russia equal to other developed nations and finally win the Second World
War, Russian’s sacrifices were so large that even now Russia feels the
consequences of that war. Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, and
World War II that was called “Great Patriotic War" in USSR eventually took
more than 26 million Soviet lives. During the WWII the tremendous amount of
industrial plants were relocated to east due to the German occupation of
the Western part of the Soviet Union. Many new industries were developed in
Uzbekistan during WW II such as plane and truck assembling, gas and oil
industries. To supply the increased need for silk and cotton, Ferghana
Canal was constructed.
Nikita Khrushchev, who took over after Stalin's death in 1953,
declared his intentions to build real communism within 20 years. Hard
liners, people opposed to his reforms and policy of peaceful coexistence
with the West, replaced Khrushchev in 1964 with Leonid Brezhnev. Until his
death in 1982, Brezhnev orchestrated the expansion of Soviet influence in
the developing world, ordered the invasion of Afghanistan, and built up the
Soviet nuclear arsenal. This invasion proved to be a terrible mistake. The
consequences of this invasion had a devastating impact on relations with
the west and internal stability. Many millions of people lost their lives
in there. Moreover, the long-term result of this invasion is the continuous
civil war in Afghanistan and as a result instability in the region. When
the next two leaders died in quick succession, a younger man, Mikhail
Gorbachev, rose to power in 1986.
Gorbachev soon introduced the reform concepts of perestroika
(restructuring) and glasnost (openness). Many of his reforms failed and the
economy of the Soviet Union during its last years was deteriorating. The
union quickly unraveled in 1991 after several republics declared
independence. Russia's leader at the time was Boris Yeltsin.
In 1993, after Yeltsin dissolved a combative parliament, his opponents
voted to impeach him and seized the "White House" (parliament building) in
an attempted coup. Following street riots, the showdown turned violent and
militants were forced from the building by tank fire. That victory and the
approval of Yeltsin's new constitution were two highlights of an otherwise
difficult term in office. Communists and ultra-nationalists mounted a
strong challenge to him in the 1996 elections. Despite poor health, Yeltsin
prevailed in the voting to become Russia's first ever freely elected
president. A violent 21-month war with separatists in the Chechnya region
tarnished Yeltsin's image at home and abroad. Finding a solution was
complicated by internal rivalries, rebellious military commanders, and
Yeltsin's failing health. Tens of thousands died before a cease-fire
finally restored peace in August 1996. Russia withdrew its troops in 1997
and Chechens elected their own local leaders. They have de facto control
over internal affairs until 200 1, when the two parties make a final
decision on Chechnya's bid for independence. However, the war was not over.
The invasion of Chechen rebels to the Russian territory, Dagestan made
Vladimir Putin, acting Prime Minister launch a new attack on Chechen
rebels. Putin’s initial war successes brought his a success in the
President’s elections in 2000. After becoming a president Vladimir Putin
started a new wave of restoring the “constitutional order” in Chechnya.
Russian government made several attempts to resolve the difficulties
between Russian and other Republics of CIS. In 1996, Russia and Belarus
agreed to closely linking their societies without actually merging. The
presidents of each nation then signed a union charter in 1997 outlining,
among other things, how Russia and Belarus would cooperate and their ethnic
groups. Also in 1997, Russia made peace with Ukraine, over ownership of the
Soviet Union’s Black Sea naval fleet, helped a peace agreement in
Tadjikistan, participated in international summits, and announced that it
would no longer target nuclear weapons at former Cold War enemies.
Russia played an important role in Commonwealth of Independent States
(CIS). Russia has peacekeeping forces in Tadjiskistan and much helped the
restoration of peace in this republic. Russia helps the Tadjikistanian
government to protect its borders of illegal drug and gun smuggling from
Afghanistan. Russian peace keeping forces made a number of joint training
with the military representatives from the Republics of Central Asia and
NATO. Great Russian history shows that many times Russia had to face the
difficult and challenging times and still was managed to survive as a
nation and was not dissolved by foreign invaders. The problems in Russia
are immese, but Russia will be able to cope with all its problems and will
rise again as a great power on the world stage.
Russia’s population, the crux of Russian reform, of 148 million is
shrinking annually by 0.7 percent. Ethnic Russians form 82 percent of the
entire population. Other groups include Tartars (4 percent), Ukrainians (3
percent), Chuvashes (I percent), Byelorussians (almost I percent),
Udrnurts, Kazaks, Buryats, Tuvinians, Yakutians, Bashkirs, and others. The
capital and largest city is Moscow, with a population of more than 10
million. Other large cities (one to three million residents each) include
St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Nizhniy Novgorod, Yekaterinburg, Saratov, and
Samara. Most Russians still live in rural areas, but young people are
moving to the cities. Russia's Human Development Index' value (0.792) ranks
it 67th out of 175 countries. Serious gaps between rich and poor, skilled
and unskilled, and healthy and ill are widening and threatening Russia's
future development. Women earn only one-fifth of the nation's income.
Migration of ethnic Russians from the republics of the former Soviet Union
to Russia increased the total Russian population but not significantly
enough to offset the gap between mortality and birth rates in Russia.
Russian language belongs to Slavic group of languages and is the
official language in Russia. Other Slavic languages are Ukrainian and
Belorussian. It uses the Cyrillic alpha- bet, which consists of 33 letters,
many of them unlike any letter in the Roman (Latin) alphabet. Non-Russians
also usually speak Russian, especially in urban areas. Rural minorities
more often speak their own languages at home or within For example, Tartars
speak Tartar, Chuvashes speak Chuvash, and Udmurts speak Udmurt. These
individual languages are only taught at schools in areas where the ethnic
group is prominent. Ethnic Russians are not required to learn other local
languages, but students are increasingly studying foreign languages
(especially English, French, German, and Spanish). In Soviet Union Russian
language was main language to connect Republics of the former Soviet Union
to each other and establish the united territorial- economic complex. As a
result Russian is widely spoken outside Russia itself. In Uzbekistan people
speak Russian mainly in the cities while Uzbek language is dominated in
rural areas. However, many so-called ethnic Russians or the Russian-
speaking population residing in areas other than Russia feel abandoned by
the break up of the Soviet Union. They tend to be closer to Russia than to
their local states.
The Russian Orthodox Church is the dominant religion. After the
October Revolution (1917), the Communists separated the church from the
state (which were previously tightly bonded) and discouraged all religious
worship. Soviet regime did not tolerate any independent way of thinking and
many religious leaders were killed, jailed or sent to exile. Many churches
were forced to close under Lenin. Mikhail Gorbachev was the first Soviet
leader to officially tolerated and even supported religion. Yeltsin also
embraced the church, which is rapidly regaining its influence. Churches
other than the Russian Orthodox are scarce in rural areas, but nearly every
major religion and many Christian churches have members in cities. Some
Tartars and Bashkirs are Muslim, and some Tuvinians and Buryats are
Buddhist. Despite the years of Communist rulings and oppression the
religion played and important role in the rural areas. More and more
Russian are getting more involved in religion now. Religion is thought to
fill the spiritual gap in peoples souls and help them reevaluate their
moral values.
Russia's long history of totalitarianism have denied its inhabitants
opportunities to make their own decisions, whether ruled by a Czar or the
Communist Party. Personal initiative, personal responsibility, and the
desire to work independently were suppressed by the state, and one was
expected to conform to official opinion and behavior. In the current
climate, Russians are searching for new social values. The resulting
confusion and chaos have led many people to wonder if the old ways were not
better. Many people are tired of the economic instability, rapidly changing
society, characterized by high prices, increasingly violent and rampant
crime, loss of income and a reduced quality of life. However, many
Russians, especially in the younger generation, are eagerly taking
advantage of the open environment. Indeed, Russians are learning the value
of discussion and compromise, personal creativity, and risk-taking. This
long-term process carries hard lessons such as financial loss, political
polarization, economic instability, and social disruption.
Friendship is extremely important in Russia. Russians are warm and
open with trusted friends. They rely on their network of friends in hard
times and will go to great lengths to help friends whenever possible.
Although intensely proud of "Mother Russia" and its achievements, Russians
are a basically pessimistic people and usually do not express much hope for
a better life in the future (except among the youth). Even generally happy
and optimistic Russians might not show their true feelings in public but
rather express frustration with everyday life. A general feeling in Russia
is that the "soul" of Russia is different from that of other countries,
that development cannot take the same course as it has in Europe, for
example. Russians often believe they must find a different path that takes
into account their unique historical heritage and social structure. In
general, Russians desire to be remembered not for the negative aspects of
the Soviet period and its aftermath, but for Russian contributions to world
literature, art, science, technology, and medicine.
Social customs in Russia are very similar to the United States. When
meeting, Russians shake hands firmly and say Zdravstvuyte (Hello), Dobry
Deny (Good day), Dobroye utro (Good morning), Dobry vecher (Good evening),
or Privet (a casual "Hello"). Good friends say "hello" with the more
informal Zdravstvuy or Zdorovo. Friends, but not strangers, might also ask
Kak dela? (How are you?) and wait for a response. Russians are introduced
by their full name (given, patronymic, surname). Surnames are not used
without titles, such as Gospodin (Mr.) and Gospozha (Mrs.). The military,
police, and some citizens continue to use the Soviet-era title tovarishch
("friend" or "comrade"). At work or in polite com pany, Russians address
each other by given name and patronymic (the possessive of the father's
first name). This is also the most appropriate form of address for a
superior or a respected elder. Close friends use given names alone.
Hand gestures carry much significance in Russian culture. Pointing
with the index finger is improper but commonly practiced. It is impolite to
talk (especially to an older person) with one's hands in the pockets or
arms folded across the chest. To count, a Russian bends (closes) the
fingers rather than opens them.
Russians like to visit and have guests. Sitting around the kitchen
table and talking for hours is a favorite pastime. One usually removes
shoes when entering a home. Hosts generally offer refreshments, but guests
may decline them. Friends and family may visit anytime without notice but
usually arrange visits in advance. They make themselves at home and
generally can expect to be welcomed for any length of time. Visits with new
acquaintances are more formal.
Giving gifts is a strong tradition in Russia, and almost every event
(birthdays, weddings, holidays, etc.) is accompanied by presents. For
casual visits, it is common (but not required) for guests to bring a simple
gift (flowers, food, or vodka) to their hosts. The object given is less
important than the friend ship expressed by the act. Flowers are given in
odd numbers; even numbers are for funerals. If friends open a bottle of
vodka (which means "little water"), they customarily drink until it is
empty.
Knowing the general attitudes is extremely important in Russia. Tankred
Golenpolsky in his book Doing Business in Russia emphasized the need the
right local partner in Russia by asking the following questions:
. Where should you invest your money?
. When should you invest your money?
. How much money should you invest?
Answering these questions correctly can assure success elsewhere, but not
in Russia. In Russia, everything begins with selection of the right partner
to work for you (Golenpolsky 27-28). Having the right partner with the wide
network of people is extremely helpful for starting your own business in
Russia. Therefore, it is extremely important to know and understand Russian
attitude and behavior patterns in order to deal with Russians and
successfully build the relations in Russian environment. Later, the authors
give the following recommendations on choosing the right candidate who
“must meet some basic requirements such as fluency in English and an
education background comparable to his or her Western colleagues. He or she
preferably should be married since this indicates a degree of stability and
seriousness, and the spouse must be ready to fit into a new system of
relationships -relationships that did not exist in the former Soviet Union.
(Golenpolsky 29-30)
Although food is plentiful in the cities, many products are expensive.
Hence, the average person eats imported fruits and vegetables infrequently.
People on fixed and limited incomes (mainly the elderly) eat more bread and
potatoes than any- thing else. Urban residents more often have meat and
dairy products. Rural people have gardens. Urban dwellers usually grow
vegetable gardens in the country or on plots near the city. Traditional
Russian foods include borsch (cabbage soup with beets), pirozhki (a stuffed
roll, eaten as "fast food"), golubtsy (stuffed cabbage leaves baked with
tomato sauce and eaten with sour cream), and shi (soup with sour cabbage).
Borsch is still one of the most popular foods in the country. Its
ingredients (potatoes, cabbages, carrots, beets, and onions) almost
complete the list of vegetables used in everyday life. Pork, sausage,
chicken, and cheeses are popular, but they can be expensive. Russians drink
coffee and mineral water; juice and soda are available. Vodka is preferred
to wine.
Russians have little leisure time because of the hours they devote to
getting food, working extra jobs, or taking care of their households. Urban
Russians spend nearly all their spare time at their dachas (country
cottages), if they have them, relaxing and growing fruits and vegetables
for the winter. In the summer, people Re to gather mushrooms. Cities have
relatively few nightclubs and entertainment usually ends before midnight,
even in Moscow.
The country's favorite sport is soccer. Winter sports such as ice
skating, hockey, and cross-country skiing are also particularly popular.
Most families like to watch television in the evening. Russia has a grand
and abiding heritage in cultural arts. The people highly appreciate
theaters and movies, but these are available only in big cities. Rural
people can watch movies at community recreation centers called dvorets
kultury (palace of culture) or the smaller dom kultury (house of culture)
New Year's Day is the most popular holiday in Russia. Almost everyone
decorates fir trees and has parties to celebrate the new year. Grandfather
Frost leaves presents for children to find on New Year's Day. Easter and
Christmas observances, long interrupted by communism, regained their
prominence in 1990. Christmas is on 7 January, according to the Julian
calendar used by the Russian Orthodox Church. Women's Day is 8 March.
Solidarity Day (I May, also known as May Day) is a day for parades. Victory
Day (9 May) commemorates the end of World War II and is deeply important to
most Russians.
The business week is 40 hours, with Saturdays and Sundays off. Offices
generally are open from 9:00 A.M. to 6:00 p.m. They close at lunchtime
(1:00 P.m.). Prices in stores are not negotiable, but prices are flexible
on the streets, where an increasing number of items is sold. Capitalism is
booming in Russia and a new generation of entrepreneurs is beginning to
thrive. Numerous small businesses and joint ventures with foreign firms are
finding success, and employees are buying state-run factories and working
to make them profitable. Under communism, there were no incentives for
bureaucrats to perform well or even be nice to clients, so the usual answer
to any question was "No." This practice is still found in society, but "no"
is no longer final. One must simply bargain and be persistent to get what
one desires.
Russians prefer having social interaction before discussing business.
Trying to do business on the phone without seeing the prospective business
partner is ineffective. One often spends a lot of time in meetings before
even a small deal can succeed. The business climate is characterized by the
high level of uncertainty in Russia. However, any companies successfully
adapted to the Russian environment. In the Rising Russia the following
industries are of particular interest for foreign investors: gas and oil
refinery and export of oil, pharmaceutical, food and food-processing
industry, aluminum extraction and manufacturing. Leasing and franchising
opportunities exist in agricultural sector where the government established
a policy encouraging farmers to obtain the modern equipment. The number of
contracts were signed with car manufacturing plants such as Vojskiy
Avtomobiliniy zavod and Moskovskiy zavod. Russia welcomes the foreign
investors but has a number of difficulties in it such as corruption and
organized crime, difficult environment in business and tax laws,
unsuitability of local currency and unstable political situation due to the
war in Chechnya. However, the new Russian government took active steps
toward the Chechen populations supporting the international terrorists and
the terrorists who were fighting the Russian troops.
The First Chechen war cost a lot to the Russian government. The second war
was more successful than the first one but still Russians are in the active
process of guerrilla war with Chechen bandits. These challenges can stop
potential investors from using the opportunities of 150 million people
market.
Russia is a federation of autonomous republics and regions. Vladimir
Putin succeeded Boris Yeltsin as a president. The president is strong and
has power to dissolve parliament, set foreign policy, and appoint the Prime
Minister. The Federal Assembly has two houses, a 176-seat Federation
Council and the 450-seat State Duma. The Constitutional Court is Russia's
highest. The voting age is 18. An array of political parties is represented
in the Duma. The actual party names are less important than their
alliances. Communists form the largest block, but not a majority, and
nationalists and liberals form other substantial voting blocks. Recently,
new Russian president implemented the measures for strengthening his power
and ability to react and influence the national economy but many there are
critics.
Russia's natural resources give it great potential for economic growth
and development. Natural gas, coal, gold, oil, diamonds, copper, silver,
and lead are all abundant. Heavy industry dominates the economy, although
the agricultural sector is potentially strong. Russia's economy is weak and
unstable. Liberal reforms designed to attract foreign investment and
privatize the economy led to higher unemployment, high inflation (above I
00 percent), and lower production. Organized crime and corruption weigh
heavily on the economy's ability to perform. Real gross domestic product
per capita is $4,828. Poverty is increasing as fast as wealth. The currency
is the ruble (R). Nearly all transactions are made in cash.
Education is free and mandatory for everyone between ages six and
seventeen. In 1994, new curriculum guidelines were introduced to encourage
choice and innovation over previous approaches to teaching, but many public
schools are unable or unwilling to implement the reforms due to lack of
money and clear local leadership. However, a few are embracing new ideas
and even teaching basic market economics to young children. Students attend
primary, middle, and high school. They can specialize in their last two
years. Private schools offer a high-quality education to the wealthy and
influential. Education is highly valued, and Russia's literacy rate is 99
percent. More than five hundred universities, medical schools, and
technical academies are found throughout the country. Russians have a
distinct advantage of a high-standard education and they are actively using
their intelligence. Russian large intellectual potential and a system of
educating brains even with its drawbacks has produced a number of talented
people who can work at least at the same level as their Western
counterparts. Unfortunately, this educational potential is not fully
utilized by the current condition of the Russian economy. The facts on
Russian immigration to such developed countries as Canada, Australia, New
Zealand or United States confirms this fact.
(http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/newcomer/welcome/index.html). The educational
potential of the nation is probably the most important factor that can
bring the nation to the family of the high-industrialized nations.
Russia with its rich heritage of music, theatre performance, poetry is
a distinct expression of the Russian media history. Currently, together
with the old ways of communications such as cinema, theatre, newspapers and
TV new avenues of the human interaction are rapidly developing. Internet
brought by the introduction of Western communicative abilities is changing
the Russian youth. Russian students are not isolated from rest of the World
due to the Internet. However, the introduction of this powerful source of
information exchange mainly affected the large cities where there are
enough resources. Countryside does not have a full access to the Internet
and can not enjoy the full advantage of Internet using. The scope of media
coverage in very wide in Russia. Russians commented on the Olympic Games,
War in Chechnya or situation in the Near East.
Russian media is the most advanced among the CIS media in terms of the
connections with the foreign media sources. Russians have to create a new
media channels to deliver messages. They do not have such strict censorship
like Republics of the Central Asia or Caucasus. The Russians reformed TASS
and have a closed connection with CNN News, Reuters. MTV, a Musical channel
established a Russian speaking music channel. Russian media played a great
role in covering the news and war operations in Chechnya and was one of the
major reasons why Russians pressured the government to stop the massacre.
Russians receive news from abroad mainly by TV (ORT- Obchestvennoe
Rosiyskoe Televidine), (RTR-Rossiyskoe TeleRadiove Vechyanie), TV-4, TV-6.
Eduard Sagalaev together with CNN, headed by Ted Turner arranged NTV and
NTV+ for broadcasting on Moscow and St. Petersburg. The second source of
Information are the various newspapers in Russia. Most of them were
originated during or after the era of Perestroyka. However, many remained
from the Soviet Era but changed their profile to be more “readable”. Before
the newspapers only printed what they were allowed to print on political or
economic topics. They could touch sports or weather occasionally. Now
newspapers can criticize the government and give their comments on the
economic situation in Russia. Radio is usually listened in the countryside
or where people do not have televisions.
Unlike people in America, many Russians use the public transportation
and do not have cars except in Moscow and St. Petersburg. However, due to
the high traffic, people prefer use subways to get to their work place. As
a result, radio does not enjoy such popularity like here in the States.
The last, but most flourishing, medium is Internet. It enjoys the
relatively lower costs of information exchange. Many newspapers have their
web sites where they place the information, news and current events.
Russian youth are becoming more and more exposed to the Internet. Internet
getting to the colleges and homes. The example of Russia organized search
engines are www.rambler.ru, www.lib.ru. Larger resources are allocated on
the information databases such as www.news.ru, www.omen.ru, which
specializes on music and entertainment. Russians made an advance step in
terms of the amount of servers but they are closely followed by Ukraine and
Kazakhstan.
Despite the rapid development of the Russian media there are still
some challenges and problems the media faces. Russian government was not
pleased with the way Russian reporters disclose the situation in Chechnya,
Kursk, fire in Ostankino and other major events where they government was
not acting at its best. Amnesty International reports on the arrests and
interrogations of the Russian reporters in Chechnya by the Russian
military. The reporters are being killed and the government does not want
to do anything about it.
Russians are facing another dilemma. The society has mixed feelings
about their identity and their role in CIS and the World. This reflects on
the ability of the Russian media to cover the news. They can not figure out
what is more important for the Russian society and what is not. The
difficult relations with West are a special circumstance of the Russian
society. Russians do not want to be portrayed as “losers” to the West. In
fact, in his speech at the West Point conference a chief editor of “Foreign
Policy” Zakartia said that Russians did not lose the cold war. They want to
change their system and life better. They do not think that the West won
it. He argued that thinking in such way and failing to cooperate with
Russia made the United States lose the Russia. This relationship prevents
the Russian media from showing the real attitude of Western democracies on
the events because the media do not want to be portrayed pro-Western. The
Russians are making steps toward democratization of their society and
political system and it has a reflection on the Russian media. The Western
nations should provide the full support to this movement while
understanding the situation in Russia and the challenges Russian go
through.
After the collapse of the Communist regime left Russia with an
inefficient economy, regional conflicts and problems with the neighboring
countries. Russia wants to become a democratic society with a developed
market oriented economy. It has a large potential especially in human
resources. Russians are educated, talented and bright people who are
willing to work hard if they are paid well. Russia has a vast variety of
natural resources that can attract foreign capital. Russians are welcoming
foreign investments. All these conditions will surely have an effect and
lead Russia to the family of the most-developed nations in the world. It
might take long time but it will surely happen.
Works Cited
Brudny, Yitzhak M. Reinventing Russia: Russian nationalism and the Soviet
State, 1953-1991. Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts,
London, England, 1998
Tankred G. Golenpolsky, Johnstone M. Robert and Kashin A. Vladimir Doing
Business in Russia Basic Facts for the Pioneering Entrepreneur. The Oasis
Press, Grants Pass, Oregon, 1995
Dunlop, John B. The Rise of Russian And The Fall Of The Soviet Empire.
Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1993
Finckenauer, James O. and Waring, Elin J. Russian Mafia in America:
Immigration, Culture, and Crime. Northeast University Press, Boston, 1998
Official Site for Immigration to Canada
http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/newcomer/welcome/index.html
Alexandr Soljenicin, “Odin deny Ivana Denisovicha” One Day of Ivan
Denisovich Trans. Rustam Tashpulatov.
Biblioteka Moshkova www.lib.ru
Information Database www.rambler.ru
Russian Gazeta www.gazeta.ru
Amnesty International http://www.amnesty.org/
Ferghana on Line www.ferghana.ru
Реферат на тему: William Shakeseare
Shakespeare the man
LIFE
Although the amount of factual knowledge available about Shakespeare is
surprisingly large for one of his station in life, many find it a little
disappointing, for it is mostly gleaned from documents of an official
character. Dates of baptisms, marriages, deaths, and burials; wills,
conveyances, legal processes, and payments by the court--these are the
dusty details. There are, however, a fair number of contemporary
allusions to him as a writer, and these add a reasonable amount of flesh
and blood to the biographical skeleton.
Early life in Stratford
The parish register of Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-upon-Avon,
Warwickshire, shows that he was baptized there on April 26, 1564; his
birthday is traditionally celebrated on April 23. His father, John
Shakespeare, was a burgess of the borough, who in 1565 was chosen an
alderman and in 1568 bailiff (the position corresponding to mayor, before
the grant of a further charter to Stratford in 1664). He was engaged in
various kinds of trade and appears to have suffered some fluctuations in
prosperity. His wife, Mary Arden, of Wilmcote, Warwickshire, came from an
ancient family and was the heiress to some land. (Given the somewhat
rigid social distinctions of the 16th century, this marriage must have
been a step up the social scale for John Shakespeare.)
Stratford enjoyed a grammar school of good quality, and the education
there was free, the schoolmaster's salary being paid by the borough. No
lists of the pupils who were at the school in the 16th century have
survived, but it would be absurd to suppose the bailiff of the town did
not send his son there. The boy's education would consist mostly of Latin
studies--learning to read, write, and speak the language fairly well and
studying some of the classical historians, moralists, and poets.
Shakespeare did not go on to the university, and indeed it is unlikely
that the tedious round of logic, rhetoric, and other studies then
followed there would have interested him.
Instead, at the age of 18 he married. Where and exactly when are not
known, but the episcopal registry at Worcester preserves a bond dated
November 28, 1582, and executed by two yeomen of Stratford, named
Sandells and Richardson, as a security to the bishop for the issue of a
license for the marriage of William Shakespeare and "Anne Hathaway of
Stratford," upon the consent of her friends and upon once asking of the
banns. (Anne died in 1623, seven years after Shakespeare. There is good
evidence to associate her with a family of Hathaways who inhabited a
beautiful farmhouse, now much visited, two miles from Stratford.) The
next date of interest is found in the records of the Stratford church,
where a daughter, named Susanna, born to William Shakespeare, was
baptized on May 26, 1583. On February 2, 1585, twins were baptized,
Hamnet and Judith. (The boy Hamnet, Shakespeare's only son, died 11 years
later.)
How Shakespeare spent the next eight years or so, until his name begins
to appear in London theatre records, is not known. There are stories--
given currency long after his death--of stealing deer and getting into
trouble with a local magnate, Sir Thomas Lucy of Charlecote, near
Stratford; of earning his living as a schoolmaster in the country; of
going to London and gaining entry to the world of theatre by minding the
horses of theatregoers; it has also been conjectured that Shakespeare
spent some time as a member of a great household and that he was a
soldier, perhaps in the Low Countries. In lieu of external evidence, such
extrapolations about Shakespeare's life have often been made from the
internal "evidence" of his writings. But this method is unsatisfactory:
one cannot conclude, for example, from his allusions to the law that
Shakespeare was a lawyer; for he was clearly a writer, who without
difficulty could get whatever knowledge he needed for the composition of
his plays.
Career in the theatre
The first reference to Shakespeare in the literary world of London comes
in 1592, when a fellow dramatist, Robert Greene, declared in a pamphlet
written on his deathbed:
There is an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his
Tygers heart wrapt in a Players hide supposes he is as well able to
bombast out a blank verse as the best of you; and, being an absolute
Johannes Factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a
country.
It is difficult to be certain what these words mean; but it is clear that
they are insulting and that Shakespeare is the object of the sarcasms.
When the book in which they appear (Greenes groats-worth of witte, bought
with a million of repentance, 1592) was published after Greene's death, a
mutual acquaintance wrote a preface offering an apology to Shakespeare
and testifying to his worth. This preface also indicates that Shakespeare
was by then making important friends. For, although the puritanical city
of London was generally hostile to the theatre, many of the nobility were
good patrons of the drama and friends of actors. Shakespeare seems to
have attracted the attention of the young Henry Wriothesley, the 3rd earl
of Southampton; and to this nobleman were dedicated his first published
poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece.
One striking piece of evidence that Shakespeare began to prosper early
and tried to retrieve the family fortunes and establish its gentility is
the fact that a coat of arms was granted to John Shakespeare in 1596.
Rough drafts of this grant have been preserved in the College of Arms,
London, though the final document, which must have been handed to the
Shakespeares, has not survived. It can scarcely be doubted that it was
William who took the initiative and paid the fees. The coat of arms
appears on Shakespeare's monument (constructed before 1623) in the
Stratford church. Equally interesting as evidence of Shakespeare's
worldly success was his purchase in 1597 of New Place, a large house in
Stratford, which as a boy he must have passed every day in walking to
school.
It is not clear how his career in the theatre began; but from about 1594
onward he was an important member of the company of players known as the
Lord Chamberlain’s Men (called the King's Men after the accession of
James I in 1603). They had the best actor, Richard Burbage; they had the
best theatre, the Globe; they had the best dramatist, Shakespeare. It is
no wonder that the company prospered. Shakespeare became a full-time
professional man of his own theatre, sharing in a cooperative enterprise
and intimately concerned with the financial success of the plays he
wrote.
Unfortunately, written records give little indication of the way in which
Shakespeare's professional life molded his marvellous artistry. All that
can be deduced is that for 20 years Shakespeare devoted himself
assiduously to his art, writing more than a million words of poetic drama
of the highest quality.
Private life
Shakespeare had little contact with officialdom, apart from walking--
dressed in the royal livery as a member of the King's Men--at the
coronation of King James I in 1604. He continued to look after his
financial interests. He bought properties in London and in Stratford. In
1605 he purchased a share (about one-fifth) of the Stratford tithes--a
fact that explains why he was eventually buried in the chancel of its
parish church. For some time he lodged with a French Huguenot family
called Mountjoy, who lived near St. Olave's Church, Cripplegate, London.
The records of a lawsuit in May 1612, due to a Mountjoy family quarrel,
show Shakespeare as giving evidence in a genial way (though unable to
remember certain important facts that would have decided the case) and as
interesting himself generally in the family's affairs.
No letters written by Shakespeare have survived, but a private letter to
him happened to get caught up with some official transactions of the town
of Stratford and so has been preserved in the borough archives. It was
written by one Richard Quiney and addressed by him from the Bell Inn in
Carter Lane, London, whither he had gone from Stratford upon business. On
one side of the paper is inscribed: "To my loving good friend and
countryman, Mr. Wm. Shakespeare, deliver these." Apparently Quiney
thought his fellow Stratfordian a person to whom he could apply for the
loan of 30--a large sum in Elizabethan money. Nothing further is known
about the transaction, but, because so few opportunities of seeing into
Shakespeare's private life present themselves, this begging letter
becomes a touching document. It is of some interest, moreover, that 18
years later Quiney's son Thomas became the husband of Judith,
Shakespeare's second daughter.
Shakespeare's will (made on March 25, 1616) is a long and detailed
document. It entailed his quite ample property on the male heirs of his
elder daughter, Susanna. (Both his daughters were then married, one to
the aforementioned Thomas Quiney and the other to John Hall, a respected
physician of Stratford.) As an afterthought, he bequeathed his "second-
best bed" to his wife; but no one can be certain what this notorious
legacy means. The testator's signatures to the will are apparently in a
shaky hand. Perhaps Shakespeare was already ill. He died on April 23,
1616. No name was inscribed on his gravestone in the chancel of the
parish church of Stratford-upon-Avon. Instead these lines, possibly his
own, appeared:
Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And curst be he that moves my bones.
EARLY POSTHUMOUS DOCUMENTATION
Shakespeare's family or friends, however, were not content with a simple
gravestone, and, within a few years, a monument was erected on the
chancel wall. It seems to have existed by 1623. Its epitaph, written in
Latin and inscribed immediately below the bust, attributes to Shakespeare
the worldly wisdom of Nestor, the genius of Socrates, and the poetic art
of Virgil. This apparently was how his contemporaries in Stratford-upon-
Avon wished their fellow citizen to be remembered.
CHRONOLOGY OF SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS
Despite much scholarly argument, it is often impossible to date a given
play precisely. But there is a general consensus, especially for plays
written 1585-1601, 1605-07, and 1609 onward. The following list of first
performances is based on external and internal evidence, on general
stylistic and thematic considerations, and on the observation that an
output of no more than two plays a year seems to have been established in
those periods when dating is rather clearer than others.
1589-92 Henry VI, Part I; Henry VI, Part III; Henry VI, Part III
1592-93 Richard III, The Comedy of Errors
1593-94 Titus Andronicus, The Taming of the Shrew
1594-95 The Two Gentlemen of Verona, Love’s Labour’s Lost, Romeo and
Juliet
1595-96 Richard II, A Midsummer Night’s Dream
1596-97 King John, The Merchant of Venice
1597-98 Henry IV, Part I; Henry IV, Part II
1598-99 Much Ado About Nothing
c. 1599 Henry V
1599-1600 Julius Caesar, As You Like It,
1600-01 Hamlet, The Merry Wives of Windsor
1601-02 Twelfth Night, Troilus and Cressida
1602-03 All’s Well That Ends Well
1604-05 Measure For Measure, Othello
1605-06 King Lear, Macbeth
1606-07 Antony and Cleopatra
1607-08 Coriolanus, Timon of Athens
1608-09 Pericles
1609-10 Cymbeline
1610-11 The Winter’s Tale
c. 1611 The Tempest
1612-13 Henry VIII, The Two Noble Kinsmen
Shakespeare's two narrative poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of
Lucrece, can be dated with certainty to the years when the Plague stopped
dramatic performances in London, in 1592 and 1593-94, respectively, just
before their publication. But the sonnets offer many and various
problems; they cannot have been written all at one time, and most
scholars set them within the period 1593-1600. "The Phoenix and the
Turtle" can be dated 1600-01.
PUBLICATION
During Shakespeare's early career, dramatists invariably sold their plays
to an actor's company, who then took charge of them, prepared working
promptbooks, and did their best to prevent another company or a publisher
from getting copies; in this way they could exploit the plays themselves
for as long as they drew an audience. But some plays did get published,
usually in small books called quartos. Occasionally plays were "pirated,"
the text being dictated by one or two disaffected actors from the company
that had performed it or else made up from shorthand notes taken
surreptitiously during performance and subsequently corrected during
other performances; parts 2 and 3 of the Henry VI (1594 and 1595) and
Hamlet (1603) quartos are examples of pirated, or "bad," texts. Sometimes
an author's "foul papers" (his first complete draft) or his "fair" copy--
or a transcript of either of these--got into a publisher's hands, and
"good quartos" were printed from them, such as those of Titus Andronicus
(1594), Love's Labour's Lost (1598), and Richard II (1597). After the
publication of "bad" quartos of Hamlet and Romeo and Juliet (1597), the
Chamberlain's Men probably arranged for the release of the "foul papers"
so that second--"good"--quartos could supersede the garbled versions
already on the market. This company had powerful friends at court, and in
1600 a special order was entered in the Stationers' Register to "stay"
the publication of As You Like It, Much Ado About Nothing, and Henry V,
possibly in order to assure that good texts were available. Subsequently
Henry V (1600) was pirated, and Much Ado About Nothing was printed from
"foul papers"; As You Like It did not appear in print until it was
included in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories & Tragedies,
published in folio (the reference is to the size of page) by a syndicate
in 1623 (later editions appearing in 1632 and 1663).
The only precedent for such a collected edition of public theatre plays
in a handsome folio volume was Ben Jonson's collected plays of 1616.
Shakespeare's folio included 36 plays, 22 of them appearing for the first
time in a good text. (For the Third Folio reissue of 1664, Pericles was
added from a quarto text of 1609, together with six apocryphal plays.)
The First Folio texts were prepared by John Heminge and Henry Condell
(two of Shakespeare's fellow sharers in the Chamberlain's, now the
King's, Men), who made every effort to present the volume worthily. Only
about 230 copies of the First Folio are known to have survived.
The following list gives details of plays first published individually
and indicates the authority for each substantive edition. Q stands for
Quarto: Q2, Q3, Q4, etc., stand for reprints of an original quarto. F
stands for the First Folio edition of 1623.
Henry VI, Part 2 Q 1594: a reported text. F from revised fair copies,
edited with reference to Q.
Titus Andronicus Q 1594: from foul papers. F from a copy of Q, with
additions from a manuscript that had been used as a promptbook.
Henry VI, Part 3 Q 1595: a reported text. F as for Henry VI, Part 2.
Richard III Q 1597: a reconstructed text prepared for use as a
promptbook. F from reprints of Q, edited with reference to foul papers
and containing some 200 additional lines.
Love's Labour's Lost Q is lost. Q2 1598: from foul papers, and badly
printed. F from Q2.
Romeo and Juliet Q 1597: a reported text. Q2 from foul papers, with some
reference to Q. F from a reprint of Q2.
Richard II Q 1597: from foul papers and missing the abdication scene. Q4
1608, with reported version of missing scene. F from reprints of Q, but
the abdication scene from an authoritative manuscript, probably the
promptbook (of which traces appear elsewhere in F).
Henry IV, Part 1 Q 1598: from foul papers. F from Q5, with some literary
editing.
A Midsummer Night's Dream Q 1600: from the author's fair copy. F from Q2,
with some reference to a promptbook.
The Merchant of Venice Q 1600: from foul papers. F from Q, with some
reference to a promptbook.
Henry IV, Part 2 Q 1600: from foul papers. F from Q, with reference to a
promptbook.
Much Ado About Nothing Q 1600: from the author's fair papers. F from Q,
with reference to a promptbook.
Henry V Q 1600: a reported text. F from foul papers (possibly of a second
version of the play).
The Merry Wives of Windsor Q 1602: a reported (and abbreviated) text. F
from a transcript, by Ralph Crane (scrivener of the King's Men), of a
revised promptbook.
Hamlet Q 1603: a reported text, with reference to an earlier play. Q2
from foul papers, with reference to Q. F from Q2, with reference to a
promptbook, with theatrical and authorial additions.
King Lear Q 1608: from an inadequate transcript of foul papers, with use
made of a reported version. F from Q, collated with a promptbook of a
shortened version.
Troilus and Cressida Q 1609: from a fair copy, possibly the author's. F
from Q, with reference to foul papers, adding 45 lines and the Prologue.
Pericles Q 1609: a poor text, badly printed with both auditory and
graphic errors.
Othello Q 1622: from a transcript of foul papers. F from Q, with
corrections from another authorial version of the play.
The plays published for the first time in the First Folio of 1623 are:
All's Well That Ends Well From the author's fair papers, or a transcript
of them.
Antony and Cleopatra From an authorial fair copy.
Henry VI, Part 1
As You Like It From a promptbook, or a transcript of it.
The Comedy of Errors From foul papers.
Coriolanus From an authorial fair copy, edited for the printer.
Cymbeline From an authorial copy, or a transcript of such, imperfectly
prepared as a promptbook.
Henry VIII From a transcript of a fair copy, made by the author, prepared
for reading.
Julius Caesar From a transcript of a promptbook.
King John From an authorial fair copy.
Macbeth From a promptbook of a version prepared for court performance.
Measure for Measure From a transcript, by Ralph Crane, of very imperfect
foul papers.
The Taming of the Shrew From foul papers.
The Tempest From an edited transcript, by Ralph Crane, of the author's
papers.
Timon of Athens From foul papers, probably unfinished.
Twelfth Night From a promptbook, or a transcript of it.
The Two Gentlemen of Verona From a transcript, by Ralph Crane, of a
promptbook, probably of a shortened version.
The Winter's Tale From a transcript, by Ralph Crane, probably from the
author's fair copy.
The texts of Venus and Adonis (1593) and The Rape of Lucrece (1594) are
remarkably free from errors. Shakespeare presumably furnished a fair copy
of each for the printer. He also seems to have read the proofs. The
sonnets were published in 1609, but there is no evidence that Shakespeare
oversaw their publication.
POETIC AND DRAMATIC POWERS
The early poems
Shakespeare dedicated the poem Venus and Adonis to his patron, Henry
Wriothesley, 3rd earl of Southampton, whom he further promised to honour
with "some graver labour"--perhaps The Rape of Lucrece, which appeared a
year later and was also dedicated to Southampton. As these two poems were
something on which Shakespeare was intending to base his reputation with
the public and to establish himself with his patron, they were displays
of his virtuosity--diploma pieces. They were certainly the most popular
of his writings with the reading public and impressed them with his
poetic genius. Seven editions of Venus and Adonis had appeared by 1602
and 16 by 1640; Lucrece, a more serious poem, went through eight editions
by 1640; and there are numerous allusions to them in the literature of
the time. But after that, until the 19th century, they were little
regarded. Even then the critics did not know what to make of them: on the
one hand, Venus and Adonis is licentiously erotic (though its sensuality
is often rather comic); while Lucrece may seem to be tragic enough, the
treatment of the poem is yet somewhat cold and distant. In both cases the
poet seems to be displaying dexterity rather than being "sincere." But
Shakespeare's detachment from his subjects has come to be admired in more
recent assessments.
Above all, the poems give evidence for the growth of Shakespeare's
imagination. Venus and Adonis is full of vivid imagery of the
countryside; birds, beasts, the hunt, the sky, and the weather, the
overflowing Avon--these give freshness to the poem and contrast strangely
with the sensuous love scenes. Lucrece is more rhetorical and elaborate
than Venus and Adonis and also aims higher. Its disquisitions (upon
night, time, opportunity, and lust, for example) anticipate brilliant
speeches on general themes in the plays--on mercy in The Merchant of
Venice, suicide in Hamlet, and "degree" in Troilus and Cressida.
There are a few other poems attributed to Shakespeare. When the Sonnets
were printed in 1609, a 329-line poem, "A Lovers complaint," was added at
the end of the volume, plainly ascribed by the publisher to Shakespeare.
There has been a good deal of discussion about the authorship of this
poem. Only the evidence of style, however, could call into question the
publisher's ascription, and this is conflicting. Parts of the poem and
some lines are brilliant, but other parts seem poor in a way that is not
like Shakespeare's careless writing. Its narrative structure is
remarkable, however, and the poem deserves more attention than it usually
receives. It is now generally thought to be from Shakespeare's pen,
possibly an early poem revised by him at a more mature stage of his
poetical style. Whether the poem in its extant form is later or earlier
than Venus and Adonis and Lucrece cannot be decided. No one could doubt
the authenticity of "The Phoenix and the Turtle," a 67-line poem that
appeared with other "poetical essays" (by John Marston, George Chapman,
and Ben Jonson) appended to Robert Chester's poem Loves Martyr in 1601.
The poem is attractive and memorable, but very obscure, partly because of
its style and partly because it contains allusions to real persons and
situations whose identity can now only be guessed at.
The sonnets
In 1609 appeared SHAKESPEARES SONNETS. Never before Imprinted. At this
date Shakespeare was already a successful author, a country gentleman,
and an affluent member of the most important theatrical enterprise in
London. How long before 1609 the sonnets were written is unknown. The
phrase "never before imprinted" may imply that they had existed for some
time but were now at last printed. Two of them (nos. 138 and 144) had in
fact already appeared (in a slightly different form) in an anthology, The
Passionate Pilgrime (1599). Shakespeare had certainly written some
sonnets by 1598, for in that year Francis Meres, in a "survey" of
literature, made reference to "his sugared sonnets among his private
friends," but whether these "sugared sonnets" were those eventually
published in 1609 cannot be ascertained--Shakespeare may have written
other sets of sonnets, now lost. Nevertheless, the sonnets included in
The Passionate Pilgrime are among his most striking and mature, so it is
likely that most of the 154 sonnets that appeared in the 1609 printing
belong to Shakespeare's early 30s rather than to his 40s--to the time
when he was writing Richard II and Romeo and Juliet rather than when he
was writing King Lear and Antony and Cleopatra. But, of course, some of
them may belong to any year of Shakespeare's life as a poet before 1609.
The early plays
Although the record of Shakespeare's early theatrical success is obscure,
clearly the newcomer soon made himself felt. His brilliant two-part play
on the Wars of the Roses, The Whole Contention between the two Famous
Houses, Lancaster and Yorke, was among his earliest achievements. He
showed, in The Comedy of Errors, how hilariously comic situations could
be shot through with wonder and sentiment. In Titus Andronicus he scored
a popular success with tragedy in the high Roman fashion. The Two
Gentlemen of Verona was a new kind of romantic comedy. The world has
never ceased to enjoy The Taming of the Shrew. Love’s Labour’s Lost is an
experiment in witty and satirical observation of society. Romeo and
Juliet combines and interconnects a tragic situation with comedy and
gaiety. All this represents the probable achievement of Shakespeare's
first half-dozen years as a writer for the London stage, perhaps by the
time he had reached 30. It shows astonishing versatility and originality.
The histories
For his plays on subjects from English history, Shakespeare primarily
drew upon Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles, which appeared in 1587, and on
Edward Hall's earlier account of The union of the two noble and illustre
famelies of Lancastre and York (1548). From these and numerous secondary
sources he inherited traditional themes: the divine right of royal
succession, the need for unity and order in the realm, the evil of
dissension and treason, the cruelty and hardship of war, the power of
money to corrupt, the strength of family ties, the need for human
understanding and careful calculation, and the power of God's providence,
which protected his followers, punished evil, and led England toward the
stability of Tudor rule.
The Roman plays
After the last group of English history plays, Shakespeare chose to write
about Julius Caesar, who held particular fascination for the
Elizabethans. Then, for six or seven years Shakespeare did not return to
a Roman theme, but, after completing Macbeth and King Lear, he again used
Thomas North's translation of Plutarch as a source for two more Roman
plays, Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, both tragedies that seem as
much concerned to depict the broad context of history as to present
tragic heroes.
The "great," or "middle," comedies
The comedies written between 1596 and 1602 have much in common and are as
well considered together as individually. With the exception of The Merry
Wives of Windsor, all are set in some "imaginary" country. Whether called
Illyria, Messina, Venice and Belmont, Athens, or the Forest of Arden, the
sun shines as the dramatist wills. A lioness, snakes, magic caskets,
fairy spells, identical twins, disguise of sex, the sudden conversion of
a tyrannous duke or the defeat offstage of a treacherous brother can all
change the course of the plot and bring the characters to a conclusion in
which almost all are happy and just deserts are found. Lovers are young
and witty and almost always rich. The action concerns wooing; and its
conclusion is marriage, beyond which the audience is scarcely concerned.
Whether Shakespeare's source was an Italian novel (The Merchant of Venice
and Much Ado About Nothing), an English pastoral tale (As You Like It),
an Italian comedy (the Malvolio story in Twelfth Night), or something of
his own invention (probably A Midsummer Night’s Dream, and parts of
each), always in his hands story and sentiments are instinct with
idealism and capable of magic transformations.
In some ways these are intellectual plays. Each comedy has a multiple
plot and moves from one set of characters to another, between whom
Shakespeare invites his audience to seek connections and explanations.
Despite very different classes of people (or immortals) in different
strands of the narrative, the plays are unified by Shakespeare's
idealistic vision and by an implicit judgment of human relationships, and
all their characters are brought together--with certain significant
exceptions--at, or near, the end.
The great tragedies
It is a usual and reasonable opinion that Shakespeare's greatness is
nowhere more visible than in the series of tragedies--Hamlet, Othello,
King Lear and Macbeth. Julius Caesar, which was written before these, and
Antony and Cleopatra and Coriolanus, which were written after, have many
links with the four. But, because of their | |
