|
Реферат: Short Overview of African Countries (География)
PLAN
1. Introduction
2. Africa in postcolonial period
3. African economy today
4. Economic organizations in Africa
5. Problems and ways to solve them
6. Conclusion
1. Introduction
It isn’t a secret that Republic of Armenia as well as other former
socialist republics is at
the end of the list of countries in terms of economy, but almost everyone
speaking about our country mentions that there are a number of countries
having more troubles with economy then our. Listening to this kind of words
makes listener think about Africa, Sahara the countries situated there.
Algeria (which situated in north Africa), Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Chad,
Djibouti, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, Mozambique, Rwanda, Zaire (Democratic
republic of Congo), Zambia, Zimbabwe and a lot of others are countries
traditionally considered to be the poorest part of the world. This is the
common image of Africa. in the following report I would try to introduce a
little bit detailed picture of this object.
I think it will be better to begin with short historical overview of
the region, which is the home of one of the human races. The historians
have defined four periods of African history research.
1. This period is 2000 B.C. up to 6-th century A.D. During that time
Egyptians were researching the north of the mainland. In 6th century
B.C. Carthaginians travelled along the west coast. Roman travellers
went far into Libyan desert.
2. 7-14 centuries A.D. This is a period of Arabian invasions. After
conquering the north they moved to the south and reached Senegal and
Niger rivers.
3. The third period of research is associated with the Europeans desire
to find a sea way to the wealth of India. By the end of sixteenth
century the continent has been outlined on maps.
4. This period of African history, which begins in eighteenth century is
probably the most shameful part of European history. Europeans blinded
with the magnificence of African wealth began sacking its territory,
the same way as they did it in America.
2. Africa in postcolonial period
From this time and up to 20-th century African continent was a big
colony of a number of European countries. After a century of rule by
France, Algeria became independent in 1962. Angola – former Portugal colony
got its freedom in 1975. Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland,
Botswana adopted its new name upon independence in 1966. The former French
Cameroon and part of British Cameroon merged in 1961 to form the present
country. Chad was a part of France's African holdings until 1960. The
French Territory of the Afars and the Issas became Djibouti in 1977. Formed
from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast and the Togoland
trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first country in colonial Africa
to gain its independence. Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho
upon independence from the UK in 1966. Mozambique almost five centuries was
a Portuguese colony came to a close with independence in 1975. Rwanda gains
its independence in 1962. The territory of Northern Rhodesia was
administered by the South Africa Company from 1891 until takeover by the UK
in 1923. During the 1920s and 1930s, advances in mining spurred development
and immigration. The name was changed to Zambia upon independence in 1964.
The UK annexed Southern Rhodesia from the South Africa Company in 1923. A
1961 constitution was formulated to keep whites in power. In 1965 the
government unilaterally declared its independence, but the UK did not
recognize the act and demanded voting rights for the black African majority
in the country (then called Rhodesia). UN sanctions and a guerrilla
uprising finally led to free elections in 1979 and independence (as
Zimbabwe) in 1980. But even after formal independence most countries are
heavily dependant on Europe in terms of investitions and aids. After the
"lost decade" of the eighties when tumbling commodity prices, debt,
economic and political mismanagement brought African economies to near
bankruptcy, the majority of African countries have embarked on
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and donor supported economic
reform programmes. In December of year 2000, the World Bank gave US$155
million in credits to help seven African countries — Madagascar, Mali,
Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, Zambia, and Uganda — cope with an unexpected
surge in oil prices and other losses in their terms of trade. These factors
were causing serious hardship for the poor in terms of rising energy and
transportation costs, which in turn were jeopardizing the success of the
countries' reform programs. Still, poverty is higher in Africa than in any
other region of the world. According to the latest data two out of five
Africans subsist below a poverty line of less than $20 per month; the
majority of these are women. This mean that some 300 million Africans live
on barely 65 cents a day. Africa has the most unequal distribution of
income of any region in the world. The richest twenty percent of Africans
own 51 percent of total income, compared to 40 percent in western countries
and in South Asia. The last report on Africa made by World Bank group also
shows how civil conflict in the region has blunted and reversed growth
prospects for war-torn countries. While the trend for many African
countries during the 1990s was one of slow but steady economic improvement,
those in conflict suffered negative growth and an alarming deterioration in
basic conditions (Angola -0.2 percent, Burundi -2.4 percent, Democratic
Republic of Congo, -4.6 percent, Rwanda, -2.1 percent, Sierra Leone, -4.6
percent). In essence, the present forecast is that the world's poverty will
become even more concentrated in Africa.
But not only the economic problems were quaking the continent.
Continuous warfares wouldn’t give a chance to develop national economy of
that region. But what is the present situation there? It seemed like the
countries stepped on a way of democracy, but as a recent World Bank report
on Africa notes, "a sharp distinction should be drawn between formal and
real democratisation". During the 1990s, 45 out of 50 African countries
held multiparty elections, in addition to the four African countries that
had such a system at the start of the decade. But in only ten elections did
these lead to a change of government. With the significant exception of
Senegal, the trend in the most recent elections on the continent appears to
be one of even fewer changes in government. According to the OAU
(Organization of African Unity), 26 African conflicts have taken place
since 1963, affecting 61 percent of the population. Today, 21 percent of
Africa's peoples are in war and conflict (Algeria, Angola, Burundi,
Comores, Congo, DRC, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Somalia,
Sudan and Uganda). It is comparable with Asia (Cambodia, India, Indonesia,
Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tibet) or even Europe (Balkans, Northern
Ireland, Russia or Spain). According to a recent survey on political rights
and civil liberties by Freedom House, 23 out of 50 African countries are
classified as "not free". But overall, over the last decade Freedom House
has moved Africa’s status from "not free" to "partly free"- a significant
improvement. Where there is conflict there is no democracy, there is hardly
an economy, and- as we've seen in Somalia and Liberia - one may even
question whether there is a state. Poverty, political instability and war
go together.
3. African economy today
Economists use a number of indicators to measure a welfare of
population of given country. Undoubtaly the most important of them are GDP
(Gross Domestic Product) and GNP (Gross National Product). In order to make
the comparision more expressive, these indexes are calculated not in
absolute values but per capita. This method helps researchers to disengage
themselves from the size of the country. Two of other important indicators
are Life Expectancy at Birth and Illiteracy Rate.
In 1998 real GDP growth was higher in Africa than any other developing
region, while inflation was slightly higher than in Asia and significantly
lower than other developing regions. Half the world's ten fastest growing
economies are in Africa, although growing off very low bases.
1999 was not a good year for Africa. Armed conflict increased and
looks set to continue. The slow-down in the world economy affected stock
markets; caused currencies to depreciate; and reduced foreign exchange
income from oil, minerals and metals and agricultural products. Aid to the
region is reducing and investors are having second thoughts, leaving many
projects on the drawing board. Aids, malaria, cholera and other diseases
are rampant. Foreign debt servicing and corruption mean that little foreign
exchange trickles through to fund education, health and infrastructure.
Tourism and, strangely enough, information technology provide the best hope
for the dark continent.
The highest GNP per capita from the mentioned countries have
Botswana($3240), Algeria($1550) and the lowest Chad($210), Rwanda($250).
There’s no need to bring the whole figures in the text but I want to
mention some common clauses.
. All the countries in the list besides the Algeria situated in
the south Africa. The rule is that the South Africa is poorer
then the North. Though there is some exceptions Botswana
($3240), South African Republic ($3240).
. I try to select the countries which indicators are representing
the picture of southern part. Some of the other countries have
the indicators lower then mentioned,Burundi ($120), Malawi
($180), Sierra Leone ($ 130) and the other higher, Seychelles
($6500), Gabon ($ 3300), South African Republic.
As it can be easily seen Algeria and Botswana per capita GDP is 3 – 6
times higher then the average on Africa. Some others have 2-6 times lower.
In order to explain these exceptions one must consider the particularities
of the countries. That’s why I’m bringing short overviews of the mentioned
countries followed by some generalizations.
Algeria. The hydrocarbons sector is the backbone of the economy,
accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of GDP, and over 95% of
export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of natural gas in
the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for
oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned
economies in the Arab world stalled in 1992 as the country became embroiled
in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded
a one-year standby arrangement with the IMF in April 1994 and the following
year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended 30 April
1998. Some progress on economic reform, Paris Club debt reschedulings in
1995 and 1996, and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery
in growth since 1995. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on
volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to
diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside
the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment
and improving living standards.
Angola. Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century
of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources,
output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture
provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and
the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45%
to GDP and 90% of exports. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in
November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many
farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the
country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich
resources - gold, diamonds, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and
large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and
reform government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil
warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The
government introduced new currency denominations in 1999. Expanded oil
production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages
investment outside of the petroleum sector.
Botswana. Agriculture still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of
the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for
only 3% of GDP. Subsistence farming and cattle raising predominate. The
sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. Diamond mining and
tourism also are important to the economy. Substantial mineral deposits
were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980
to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates
place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the
capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early
2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.
Cameroon. Because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural
conditions, Cameroon has one of the best-endowed primary commodity
economies in sub-Saharan Africa. Still, it faces many of the serious
problems facing other underdeveloped countries, such as a top-heavy civil
service and a generally unfavorable climate for business enterprise. Since
1990, the government has embarked on various IMF and World Bank programs
designed to spur business investment, increase efficiency in agriculture,
improve trade, and recapitalize the nation's banks. The government,
however, has failed to press forward vigorously with these programs. The
latest enhanced structural adjustment agreement was signed in October 1997;
the parties hope this will prove more successful, yet government
mismanagement and corruption remain problems. Inflation has been brought
back under control. Progress toward privatization of remaining state
industry should support continued economic growth in 2000.
Chad. Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from it's
geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political
turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the
herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited
least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994.
Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Fund, and other
sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially
livestock production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the Doba
Basin oil fields, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially
delayed.
Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire). The economy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo - a nation endowed with vast potential wealth - has
declined drastically since the mid-1980s. The new government instituted a
tight fiscal policy that initially curbed inflation and currency
depreciation, but these small gains were quickly reversed when the foreign-
backed rebellion in the eastern part of the country began in August 1998.
The war has dramatically reduced government revenue, and increased external
debt. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about
the outcome of the conflict and because of increased government harassment
and restrictions. Poor infrastructure, an uncertain legal framework,
corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and
financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of
IMF and World Bank missions have met with the new government to help it
develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.
Assuming moderate peace, annual growth is likely to increase to nearly 5%
in 2000-01, but inflation will continue to be a problem.
Djibouti. The economy is based on service activities connected with
the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in
northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city
(Djibouty), the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scanty rainfall
limits crop production to fruits and vegetables, and most food must be
imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region
and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural
resources and little industry. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent
on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to
finance development projects. An unemployment rate of 40% to 50% continues
to be a major problem. Inflation is not a concern, however, because of the
fixed tie of the franc to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an
estimated 35% over the last seven years because of recession, civil war,
and a high population growth rate (including immigrants and refugees).
Also, renewed fighting between Ethiopia and Eritrea has disturbed normal
external channels of commerce. Faced with a multitude of economic
difficulties, the government has fallen in arrears on long-term external
debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid
donors.
Ghana Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per
capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa. Even so, Ghana
remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical
assistance. Gold, timber, and cocoa production are major sources of foreign
exchange. The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence
agriculture, which accounts for 40% of GDP and employs 60% of the work
force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress
under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the
IMF. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional
peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit
financing, depreciation of the cedi (national currency), and rising public
discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. A rebound in gold prices is
likely to push growth over 5% in 2000-01.
Kenya. Kenya is well placed to serve as an engine of growth in East
Africa, but its economy is stagnating because of poor management and uneven
commitment to reform. In 1993, the government of Kenya implemented a
program of economic liberalization and reform that included the removal of
import licensing, price controls, and foreign exchange controls. With the
support of the World Bank, IMF, and other donors, the reforms led to a
brief turnaround in economic performance following a period of negative
growth in the early 1990s. Kenya's real GDP grew 5% in 1995 and 4% in 1996,
and inflation remained under control. Growth slowed in 1997-99 however.
Political violence damaged the tourist industry, and Kenya's Enhanced
Structural Adjustment Program lapsed due to the government's failure to
maintain reform or address public sector corruption. A new economic team
was put in place in 1999 to revitalize the reform effort, strengthen the
civil service, and curb corruption, but wary donors continue to question
the government's commitment to sound economic policy. Long-term barriers to
development include electricity shortages, the government's continued and
inefficient dominance of key sectors, endemic corruption, and the country's
high population growth rate.
Lesotho. Small, landlocked, and mountainous, Lesotho's only important
natural resource is water. Its economy is based on subsistence agriculture,
livestock, and remittances from miners employed in South Africa. The number
of such mine workers has declined steadily over the past several years. In
1996 their remittances added about 33% to GDP compared with the addition of
roughly 67% in 1990. A small manufacturing base depends largely on farm
products which support the milling, canning, leather, and jute industries.
Agricultural products are exported primarily to South Africa. Proceeds from
membership in a common customs union with South Africa form the majority of
government revenue. Although drought has decreased agricultural activity
over the past few years, completion of a major hydropower facility in
January 1998 now permits the sale of water to South Africa, generating
royalties that will be an important source of income for Lesotho. The pace
of parastatal privatization has increased in recent years. Civil disorder
in September 1998 destroyed 80% of the commercial infrastructure in Maseru
and two other major towns. Most firms were not covered by insurance, and
the rebuilding of small and medium business has been a significant
challenge in terms of both economic growth and employment levels. Output
dropped 10% in 1998 and recovered slowly in 1999.
Mozambique. Before the peace accord of October 1992, Mozambique's
economy was devastated by a protracted civil war and socialist
mismanagement. In 1994, it ranked as one of the poorest countries in the
world. Since then, Mozambique has undertaken a series of economic reforms.
Almost all aspects of the economy have been liberalized to some extent.
More than 900 state enterprises have been privatized. Pending are tax and
much needed commercial code reform, as well as greater private sector
involvement in the transportation, telecommunications, and energy sectors.
Since 1996, inflation has been low and foreign exchange rates stable.
Albeit from a small base, Mozambique's economy grew at an annual 10% rate
in 1997-99, one of the highest growth rates in the world. Still, the
country depends on foreign assistance to balance the budget and to pay for
a trade imbalance in which imports outnumber exports by five to one or
more. The medium-term outlook for the country looks bright, as trade and
transportation links to South Africa and the rest of the region are
expected to improve and sizable foreign investments materialize. Among
these investments are metal production (aluminum, steel), natural gas,
power generation, agriculture (cotton, sugar), fishing, timber, and
transportation services. Additional exports in these areas should bring in
needed foreign exchange. In addition, Mozambique is on track to receive a
formal cancellation of a large portion of its external debt through a World
Bank initiative.
Rwanda. Rwanda is a rural country with about 90% of the population
engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture. It is the most densely
populated country in Africa; is landlocked; and has few natural resources
and minimal industry. Primary exports are coffee and tea. The 1994 genocide
decimated Rwanda's fragile economic base, severely impoverished the
population, particularly women, and eroded the country's ability to attract
private and external investment. However, Rwanda has made significant
progress in stabilizing and rehabilitating its economy. GDP has rebounded,
and inflation has been curbed. In June 1998, Rwanda signed an Enhanced
Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) with the IMF. Rwanda has also
embarked upon an ambitious privatization program with the World Bank.
Continued growth in 2000 depends on the maintenance of international aid
levels and the strengthening of world prices of coffee and tea.
Zambia. Despite progress in privatization and budgetary reform,
Zambia's economy has a long way to go. The recent privatization of the huge
government-owned Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) should greatly
improve Zambia's prospects for international debt relief, as the government
will no longer have to cover the mammoth losses generated by that sector.
Inflation and unemployment rates remain high, however.
Zimbabwe. The government of Zimbabwe faces a wide variety of difficult
economic problems as it struggles to consolidate earlier progress in
developing a market-oriented economy. Its involvement in the war in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, for example, has already drained hundreds
of millions of dollars from the economy. Badly needed support from the IMF
suffers delays in part because of the country's failure to meet budgetary
goals. Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998 to 59% in 1999.
The economy is being steadily weakened by AIDS; Zimbabwe has the highest
rate of infection in the world. Per capita GDP, which is twice the average
of the poorer sub-Saharan nations, will increase little if any in the near-
term, and Zimbabwe will suffer continued frustrations in developing its
agricultural and mineral resources.
So the generalization is obvious. The countries which have the highest
GDP per capita are oil, gas as well as other raw materials exporters.
Almost none of the countries has stable source of incomes. Oil exporters
are in a better condition then the last, but it has a number of negative
consequences. The first is that their economy are heavily dependant on the
oil prices. The next is that even the richest resources may be easily
wasted if the incomes are not managed properly. The corruption in a
government, continuous possibility of warfare wouldn’t let foreign capital
flow easily into these countries. Even the oil fields couldn’t attract
investitions if there’s no political stability. Though the most population
of these countries are involved in agriculture the most of them couldn’t
provide enough food for themselves. The reason is simple lack of water
resources. A number of countries having a lot of resources are not able to
use them efficently because of continuous warfares, which are draining
budgets. These are the major negative facts considering African economy,
but there are a lot of positive ones.
According to ECA’s "Africa Economic Report 2000" shows, for five years
running, Africa's GDP has grown faster than its population, reversing the
falling living standards of the previous 15 years. While growth trends for
the region as a whole remain depressed, some African countries are doing
well. Fourteen countries have grown on average by 4 percent a year during
the 1990s, with rising annual incomes of 2-3 percent and even higher, with
another 10 countries following close behind with growth rates above 3
percent a year. Some countries have grown at 7 percent a year or higher
(Mozambique, 7 percent, and Uganda, 7.1 percent). "These figures show us
that economic reforms over recent years have slowly but surely improved
growth in many African countries and allowed the private sector to take
root," says Alan Gelb, Chief Economist of the World Bank's Africa region.
"However, despite this rising trend, countries are still vulnerable to
conflict and external shocks in world markets, such as the recent rapid
increase in oil prices and fallout from the East Asia crisis. These two
forces have together produced highly unfavorable terms of trade for oil
importers."
Now shortly about the social indicators. Although life expectancy has
risen slightly in Africa, this is happening at a slower rate than elsewhere
and, since 1990 the HIV/AIDS epidemic has caused it to decline, especially
in countries with high adult infection rates. In Zimbabwe, for example,
life expectancy has fallen by five years, while in Botswana, it has fallen
by over ten. Life Expectancy at birth is ranging between 37 year (Sierra
Leonne) and 71.8 year (Seychelles). The rule is that Africans living in
countries beset by conflict are more likely to have shorter life expectancy
at birth and have higher infant mortality rates than other more stable
countries. Sierra Leone is a striking illustration of this trend with the
region's lowest life expectancy rate at just 37 years, and its highest
infant mortality rate at 169 deaths per one thousand. Child mortality is a
particularly acute problem for many countries in Africa. Infant mortality
is close to 10 percent, and on average 151 of every 1,000 children die
before the age of 5, although in many countries the mortality rate exceeds
200 per 1,000. Illiteraci level is extremelly high for the whole territory
of Africa. Population per physician oscillates in the following range
lowest: 827 (Seychelles), highest: 53986 (Niger). There’s no use to say
that population per hospital bed is also in very poor condition. Despite
major strides that had been made in the eradication of malaria, the disease
is on the rise again throughout Africa. Elsewhere in the world HIV/AIDS is
on the decline. In Africa, HIV/AIDS has reached pandemic proportions,
threatening to wipe out Africa’s fragile social and economic gains. Two-
thirds of the world’s 34 million AIDS sufferers are in sub-Saharan Africa.
Today in 21 African countries more than 7 percent of adults live with
HIV/AIDS, with the highest absolute number of cases found in South Africa,
where one in every five adults has contracted the virus. Countries like
Niger, Sudan, and Mauritania, which have some of the lowest incidence of
AIDS in the region, offer great potential for control.Yet as countries like
Senegal and Uganda show, with the necessary political will and resources,
the AIDS pandemic can be rolled back. A little bit better situaion is
observed in the sphere of education. The new report shows that Africa has
made more progress in education than in health with literacy rates
improving for both men and women. At 41 percent, the illiteracy rate in the
region is still high compared to rest of the world, but it is at its lowest
point ever. Of particular significance is the advance being made in girls'
education. While this represents welcome progress, far more needs to be
done. Half of Africa's children of school going age are out of school; this
is even lower in rural areas and among girls.
The statistical data may vary depending on source due to the
insufficent automatization of statistical institutions of the region.
That’s why World Bank approved a grant to transfer systems to six Southern
African countries (Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho, Tanzania,
and Zambia) to strengthen their statistical reporting capabilities. "The
quality of development data depends on the source. Our goal is to empower
statistical offices in Africa, and help them to move from hand-written
National Account tables to a modern system that is easy to adopt, maintain,
and capable of delivering quality data," says Ziad Badr, the team leader of
African Development Indicators 2001, and a senior World Bank economist in
its Africa region. "This will bring statistical institutions in Africa into
the new millennium, and provide a reliable system to measure development
progress and identify remaining challenges."
In summary, macro balances, or getting the prices right, is not
economic reform just as casting a ballot is not democracy. The hallmarks of
a capable state are strong institutions of governance; a sharp focus on the
needs of the poor; powerful watchdogs; the rule of law; intolerance of
corruption; transparency and accountability in the management of public
affairs; respect for human rights; participation by all citizens in the
decisions that affect their lives; as well as the creation of an enabling
environment for the private sector and civil society.
4. Economic organizations in Africa
The main economic power of Africa south of the Sahara Desert is South
African Republic. Through its well developed infrastructure and deepwater
ports, South Africa handles much of the trade for the whole southern
African region. In 1970 its immediate neighbours, Botswana, Swaziland and
Lesotho, and latterly Namibia, signed the Southern African Customs Union
(SACU) enabling them to share in the customs revenue from their trade
passing through South African ports. In order to counter the economic
dominance of South Africa in the southern African region, the countries to
the north of it organised themselves into the Southern African Development
Conference (SADC). Member states include those of the SACU as well as
Angola, situated north of Namibia, and it's oil-rich enclave of Cabinda,
and Mozambique on the east coast, and the countries of south-central
Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi. Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania signed
Treaty for Enhanced East African Co-operation in order to allow free flow
of goods and people. The small landlocked central African countries of
Rwanda and Burundi form part of an economic union of countries in the
central African region. Other members of the Economic Community of Central
African States are Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial
Guinea, the oil-rich Congo and Gabon and the vast country of the Democratic
Republic of Congo. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
is a solid geographical bloc of 15 states from Nigeria in the east to
Mauritania in the west. The countries of Mauritania, Mali and Niger are
located in the southern stretch of the Sahara Desert while the remaining
countries are splayed out along the coast line. As a result of their
respective colonial histories, these countries are divided into French and
English-speaking states. The francophone countries include the republics of
Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, the Ivory Coast (Cфte d'Ivoire), Guinea and
Senegal while the remaining states of Nigeria, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra
Leone, and the Gambia have English as their official language. The Republic
of Guinea Bissau is a Portuguese-speaking state to the south of Senegal.
5. Problems and ways to solve them
The biggest challenge to doing business in Africa is the lack of
quality information about Africa. Some of the other challenges of Africa
are:
. fluctuating currencies
. bureaucratic red tape, which is slowly getting easier to wade
through
. graft and corruption
. nepotism
. wars and unrest, though the changes in South Africa are starting
to create a ripple of peace and democracy throughout the region
. lack of local capital
. monopolies such as marketing boards, state trading firms,
foreign exchange restrictions, trade taxes and quotas and
concentration on limited commodities all place a disincentive on
exports, thus delinking Africa from the world economy.
. lack of infrastructure, though in areas such as
telecommunications and energy, Africa is able to use new
technologies to leapfrog more advanced economies
However, none of these challenges is insurmountable; in fact, some
entrepreneurs would contend that African risk is lower than that even of
North America.
There is hardly could be a person, who is able to resolve all the
problems considering the challenges in the list. But there are a number of
tasks to be completed in order to improve the quality of life and gain
stable economic growth.
Resource mobilization To halve poverty by 2015 countries must reach
the 8 percent growth in GDP each year, instead of present 4.4 %. To reach
this rate investments must be 40 percent of gross domestic product. Even
with major increase in domestic savings, there are still huge financing
gaps. Africa’s rate of return on Foreign Direct Investment is 29 percent
per year, higher than any other region of the world. Annual average foreign
investment flows have increased from $1.9 billion in 1983-87 to $6 billion
in 1993-97. But this is just 4 percent of the total investment pouring into
developing countries. In the face of global financial volatility, Africa's
nascent capital markets have also remained buoyant. Yet institutional
investors remain resistant to the possibilities in Africa. African
countries have undertaken significant economic reforms, but investment has
not come.
Regional co-operation Regional integration is the key to Africa's
success in the 21st century. The challenge is for the subregional
initiatives to march together and in step with the World Trade
Organization.
Information technology Information and communication technologies
present some of the most exciting possibilities for Africa in the new
millennium. “With new ways to communicate we can leapfrog through several
stages of development; cut the cost of doing business; and narrow the gap
of huge distances. …At ECA, we want to make sure that Africans are drivers,
not passengers, on the information highway…” says Dr. K.Y. Amoko, executive
secretary, Economic Comission for Africa. at the National Summit on Africa
held in Washington D.C. 17 February 2000. There was registered a
significant growth in Internet spreading through the continent. E-Commerce,
television and radio are also developing rapidly.
Governance Ensuring and sustaining good governance must be an African
responsibility, first and foremost.
Social investment. Social spending has become a major casualty of
recent budget cuts in many African countries. To expect that Africa can
progress when investment in its human capital is declining is a classic
case of being penny wise and pound foolish. Social investment challenges of
health, education, housing, water supplies and sanitation are enormous and
demand the creativity and partnership of all caring parties.
Gender equality Excluding Islamic countries, Africa is the most
remarkable region in terms of discrimination against women. Since the UN's
Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995, the world better
understands the need to free women to become equal participants in
development. This is not just a matter of rights but of good economic
sense. “It is past time to lead by rhetoric; it is time to lead by
example.” (from the National Summit on Africa documents”)
Preventing conflict The world has learned expensively that it is
cheaper and far more humane to prevent conflict than to fight a war. So it
is one of the most actual problems for African countries. To quote the UN
Secretary General, "in the past twenty years we have understood the need
for military intervention where governments grossly violate human rights
and the international order. In the next twenty years we must learn how to
prevent conflicts, as well as intervene in them." Peace can no longer be
just about peace making and peace keeping. It is also about peace building.
African diaspora must also take part in ongoing processes. A lot of
Africans live in European countries as well as in United States. They are
able to help their historical homes in three major ways.
First, Become an Advocate for Africa: For every devastating image of
Africa they see on television, not far from that camera there is an image
of people striving to develop. As a start, they should visit Africa, spread
the word about it, become a personal lobbyists for Africa. They must lobby
for African products in their stores; lobby for strong US-Africa ties.
Second, Invest in Africa: Investing in Africa could be profitable. Now
is the time for African-Americans to put their money where their mouths
are. They can invest in Africa, through such convenient ways as the mutual
funds that concentrate on Africa. Members of other diasporas have
accelerated development in their ancestral homelands through widespread
individual investments. Surely African-Americans can do it, too.
Third, Invest politically in Africa, 40 percent of United Nations
assistance is currrently going to Africa. When the US and other flourishing
countries pay their UN dues, when someone pays voluntary contributions
to United Nations he/she helps Africa. Foreign aid helps building schools
as well as improving governance in terms of efficancy.
While many write off Africa as the continent of despair, other
enterprising individuals and organisations have recognised the huge,
untapped potential of Africa and are actively pursuing business ventures
across the continent.
African Development Indicators show clearly where the regions greatest
social challenges and opportunities lie. Indeed, Africa's future economic
growth will depend less on exploiting its natural resources, which are
being depleted and are subject to long-run price declines, and more on its
labor skills and its ability to accelerate a demographic transition.
Africa's opportunities, which range in risk from investing in emerging
market funds or one of the listed multinationals active in Africa to
trading with African partners, include:
. oil and gas (Angola and Libya);
. mining (West and Central Africa);
. privatisations (South Africa and Nigeria);
. international trade (oil producers and SADC);
. infrastructure (pipelines, roads, telecommunications);
. stock exchanges that are mushrooming in many countries
. using educated English and French speaking African nationals
. and leisure (big game + beaches + golf + climate + satellite +
Internet + cell + low cost structure = huge telecommuting
opportunity).
However, perhaps Africa's greatest opportunity lies in its
biodiversity, which ranges from Sahara desert to tropical jungle, from snow-
capped volcanic Mount Kilamanjaro to the beaches of East and West Africa.
Then there is the excitement of stalking big game in the African bush to
the thrill of whitewater rafting through the gorges below Victoria Falls or
the awe of seeing the Egyptian pyramids at sunrise. Africa is going to
become the telecommuting centre of the world, in the short to medium term,
ecotourism provides the opportunity to develop leisure complexes which can
take advantage of game parks, golf courses, beaches and beautiful scenery
one day. “We need to stop thinking of ourselves as a single engine train,
but rather a jumbo jet, with several engines revving up for take off, and
several more back ups in case of engine failure.” said K.Y. Amoako
Executive Secretary of ECA at the 40th Anniversary of Africa Confidential.
6. Conclusion
At the end few words comparing Armenia with the African region. The
main difference is different natural resources of these regions. Africans
may get started their economic growth with incomes from exporting oil, gas,
precious metals and jewels. Alas, Armenia have no this option. Our country
have no significant resources to exploit them or not to exploit, meanwhile
for Africa devastation of resources may stimulate the economy in the case
of peace and efficient government. There are also a lot of differences in
terms of agriculture. Arfican countries cover wide territory, but they have
problems with irrigation. In the case of Armenia it is important to note,
that the situation is just the opposite. Even the most severe droughts can
not be compared with deserted areas of black continent, but the land is
highly limited. I think that the last point of comparison, which is as
important as the previous ones, is the labour force. Labour force is one of
the main differences between former USSR republics and the developing
countries of African region. As a result of USSR educational system Armenia
has educational level which can be easily compared even with the most
developed countries.The level of literacy is 99%, which is higher than in
African countries. Armenian in spheres of programming, medicine, science
highly priced all over the world. The main problem in these sphere is brain
drain. So the primary task for government is to stop this process. With the
foreign investitions Armenia is able to establish advanced technology
production, which is not available for Africans. This could be a good
impulse to become a new “tiger”.
So our regions have different prerequisits, different ways of
developing, but same aim, and unfortunately obstacles in terms of
government and unstable peace.
-----------------------
[pic]
Algeria
[pic]
Angola
[pic]
Botswana
[pic]
Cameroon
[pic]
Chad
[pic]Congo(Zaire)
[pic]
Djibouti
[pic]
Ghana
[pic]
Kenya
[pic]
Lesotho
[pic]
Mozambique
[pic]
Rwanda
[pic]
Zambia
[pic] Zimbabwe
Реферат на тему: Sweden
GEOGRAAFILINE ASEND
Rootsi Kuningriik asub Pхhja-Euroopas, Skandinaavia poolsaarel, Balti
mere ддres. Pindala on 450 tuhat ruutkilomeetrit. Pealinn - Stockholm.
Balti meres talle kuuluvad saared Gotland ja Цland. Mandril Rootsi naabrid
on Norra ja Soome, aga kaugel pole ka Taani, Saksamaa ja Balti riigid - nad
asuvad ьle Balti mere.
LOODUSLIKUD TINGIMUSED
Rootsi kesk- ja lхunaosa on killustatud tuhandete jдrvedega ja
jхgedega ning lддneosas on pikk mдeahelik. Jхgede ja jдrvede pindala
moodustab 9% ja mдgede pindala 16% kogu pindalast. Kuna Rootsi on hдsti
"venitatud" pхhjast lхuna, siis on ka kliima erinevates osades vдga erinev.
Pхhjas on kogu aeg lumi, lхunas aga kliima on suhteliselt mххdukas. Selle
kliima pхhimхjutajad on Pхhja Atlandi voolus ning domineerivad lддnetuuled,
mis puhuvad suhteliselt soojast Atlandi ookeanist. Pхhjas on mдrkavalt
kьlmem kui lхunaosas, kuna seal on palju mдestikke ning soe mereхhk
lihtsalt ei ulata sinna.
Keskmine хhutemperatuur veebruaris on natuke alla 0( C ning juulis
16( C. Suvel pдev muutub pikemaks, цц lьhemaks ja talvel vastupidi.
Keskmine sade on 535 millimeetrit aastas. Kхige rohkem sademeid on
augustis edela osas.
Rootsi hoolitseb vдga oma keskkonnast ja kavatseb sulgeda kхik oma
aatomelektrijaamad aastaks 2010, kuigi just nemad annavad praegu rohkema
osa elektrienergiast.
Naturaalsetest resurssidest vхib nimetada tsinki, uraani, rauamaaki,
RAHVASTIK
Rootsi rahvaarv on 8,9 milljonit inimest ja tihedus on umbes 20
inimest ьhe ruutkilomeetri kohta. Kuna pхhjaosa on pхhiliselt mдgine ja
suuremad linnad asuvad lхunas, siis ka rahvas paikneb peamiselt lхunaosas.
Suurem linn on Stockholm - 700 tuhat elanikke. Keskmine meeste eluiga on 75
ning naiste - 81 aastat. Kohaliku rahva arv on umbes 83%. Rahvajuurdekasv
on 0,5-0,6%. Kirjaoskamatuid on alla 1%. Vдlismaalastest on kхige rohkem
soomlasi ( 2,3% ). Ьle 65 aastaseid on 17,5%, ьle 80 aastaseid 4,7%
ьldrahvaarvust.
Rootslaste хppimiskulud on maailma kхige kхrgemate seas. Samas on ka
palju riigitoetusi hariduse saamiseks. Gьmnaasiumi astuvad rohkem kui 90%
хpilastest. Samuti riik hoolitseb ka kodanike tervisest. Ka siin saavad
inimesed suured riigitoetused. Sellepдrast suremus ongi ьks madalamaid
maailmas: kuus surnut tuhande sьndinute kohta.
MAJANDUS
Majandusarengu jдrgi kuulub Rootsi Esimesse Maailma (e. Pхhja Riikide
hulka). Rootsi majandus on kхige suurem Skandinaavia riikides. 1994.
aastal nдis riigieelarve jдrgmiselt:
SISSETULEK 47.9 miljardit USA dollarit
VДLJAMINEK 70.9 miljardit USA dollarit
RKP ьhe elaniku kohta on ьks suuremaid maailmas: 22 000 USD.
RKP harude jдrgi vхib nдha diagrammil 1.
Sellest samast diagrammist vхib nдha, et teenindusharud hхivavad
umbes kaks kolmandikku kogu RKP-st.
Keskmine kuupalk on 1100 USD ning tulumaks on sхltuvalt kuupalgast
31-46%.
KULUTUSED PEREKONNA EELARVES (keskmised, %-des kuupalgast)
|Elamu, k.a elektrienergia ja kьtus |32 % |
|Toitlustamine, k.a kodust vдljas |17 % |
|Transport |15 % |
|Meelelahutused |9 % |
|Riietus ja jalatsid |6 % |
|Mццbel ja kodutehnika |6 % |
|Alkohoolsed joogid ja tubakas |5 % |
|Hoolitsemine laste ja vanurite eest, |3 % |
|ravimine | |
|Muu |7 % |
Tццtute arv on meeste hulgas 7,7% ja naiste hulgas 7%.
Pхhilised tццstusharud on mootorsхidukite tootmine ( Rootsis on
sхiduautosid 3 619 000 tk. Ja see on kuueteistkьmnes nдitaja maailmas),
mets ja puidutooted, tдppismehaanikatooted (elektroonika, kuullaagrid jt),
ьmbertццdeldud toiduained.
Kхikide metallide ammutamine toimub Rootsi pхhjaosas, mдgedes,
ьlejддnute harudega tegeldatakse lхuna- ja edelaosas, kuna kхik linnad (k.a
ka tццstuslinnad) asuvad just seal.
Pхllumajanduses on domineeriv loomade kasvatamine koos
piimatootmisega - need toovad 37% kogu pхllumajanduse tuludest.
Pхllumajandusega tegeldatakse pхhiliselt kagu osas, kuna seal on madalik,
mis vхimaldab sellega tegeleda.
VДLISMAJANDUSLIKUD SIDEMED
1995. aastal astus Rootsi Euroopa Liitu (EL) ja sellepдrast praegused
pхhilised дripartnerid on EL liikmed.
Eksportimispхhiliigid on: masinatooted, mootorsхidukid, paberitooted,
mets ja puidutooted, tooted rauast ja terasest, kemikaalid, nafta ning
naftatooted.
Ekspordi partnerid on EL riigid, eriti Saksamaa, Suurbritannia,
Taani, Prantsusmaa, Soome ning mхned teised riigid nagu USA ja Norra.
Importeerimise pхhiartiklid on: masinaehitustooted, nafta ning
naftatooted, kemikaalid, mootorsхidukid, raud ja teras, riietusesemed ning
toiduained.
Impordi partnerid on pхhiliselt samad mis ka ekspordi omad.
KASUTATUD ALLIKAD
- Svenska Institutet (Rootsi Instituut)
- RKP andmed: World Bank World Tables (Maailma Panga maailma tabelid)
- Pindala andmed: 1994 Food and Agriculture Organization Production
Yearbook
- Microsoft( Encarta( World Atlas 1998 Edition
-----------------------
[pic]
| |
