GeoSELECT.ru



Иностранные языки / Реферат: Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран (Иностранные языки)

Космонавтика
Уфология
Авиация
Административное право
Арбитражный процесс
Архитектура
Астрология
Астрономия
Аудит
Банковское дело
Безопасность жизнедеятельности
Биология
Биржевое дело
Ботаника
Бухгалтерский учет
Валютные отношения
Ветеринария
Военная кафедра
География
Геодезия
Геология
Геополитика
Государство и право
Гражданское право и процесс
Делопроизводство
Деньги и кредит
Естествознание
Журналистика
Зоология
Инвестиции
Иностранные языки
Информатика
Искусство и культура
Исторические личности
История
Кибернетика
Коммуникации и связь
Компьютеры
Косметология
Криминалистика
Криминология
Криптология
Кулинария
Культурология
Литература
Литература : зарубежная
Литература : русская
Логика
Логистика
Маркетинг
Масс-медиа и реклама
Математика
Международное публичное право
Международное частное право
Международные отношения
Менеджмент
Металлургия
Мифология
Москвоведение
Музыка
Муниципальное право
Налоги
Начертательная геометрия
Оккультизм
Педагогика
Полиграфия
Политология
Право
Предпринимательство
Программирование
Психология
Радиоэлектроника
Религия
Риторика
Сельское хозяйство
Социология
Спорт
Статистика
Страхование
Строительство
Схемотехника
Таможенная система
Теория государства и права
Теория организации
Теплотехника
Технология
Товароведение
Транспорт
Трудовое право
Туризм
Уголовное право и процесс
Управление
Физика
Физкультура
Философия
Финансы
Фотография
Химия
Хозяйственное право
Цифровые устройства
Экологическое право
   

Реферат: Обычаи и традиции англо-говорящих стран (Иностранные языки)




Введение


Объектом исследования моей работы являются обычаи и традиции англо-
говорящих стран. И я хочу сказать, что жизнь этих стран полна традиций и
обычаев. Некоторые из них очень красивые, красочные и живописные и,
кажется, весьма разумные; другие - любопытны, иногда забавны, иногда
существуют лишь для привлечения туристов. Многие традиции появились очень
давно и прошли многие столетия, другие – появились сравнительно недавно. Но
некоторые из них давно пережили себя и стали обременительными и остаются
лишь из-за известного английского консерватизма. Есть много традиций,
связанных с историческими событиями, Парламентом, судом, университетской
жизнью, а также традиции и обычаи, появляющиеся в каждодневной жизни.
Приблизительно одна треть населения земного шара разговаривают на
английском языке. Для некоторых он является родным, другим – в силу
исторически сложившихся обстоятельств стал вторым после родного. В странах,
куда английский язык был привнесен, он искажается и трансформируется с
учетом новых для него “условий жизни”, “приспосабливается” к местным
обычаям и традициям, принимая различные диалектные формы.
Похожее случилось и с исконно английскими традициями. В разных
местностях они приобретали собственное толкование и постепенно
видоизменялись и даже до такой степени, что при сравнении вряд ли возможно
найти схожие черты у старой английской традиции и у преобразовавшейся.
Цель моей работы – изучить обобщенный опыт жизни и традиций англо-
говорящих стран. Для людей, которые собираются путешествовать по миру
особенно важно знать язык, обычаи, традиции той страны, которую они
собираются посетить. Невозможно, например, приехать в Шотландию и смеяться
над их национальной одеждой - клетчатыми юбками; или, например, удивляться
тому, что Королева Великобритании начинает свой день с завтрака - овсяной
каши - и это уже давно сложившийся для нее обычай. Для того чтобы избежать
такой ситуации, перед тем как ехать в какую-либо страну необходимо
ознакомиться хотя бы с общепринятыми обычаями этой страны.
Одной из главных традиций большинства государств мира является
празднование своего национального праздника. Во Франции это День взятия
Бастилии, в США – День независимости, в Германии два национальных праздника
– День освобождения и День республики. В нашей стране – День суверенитета.
А как обстоят дела с национальными праздниками в Великобритании? Будучи
островным государством, Британия долгое время оказывала влияние на
политическое и социально-экономическое развитие других государств. Проводя
гибкую политику, Британия сумела принимать участие в большинстве
международных военных конфликтах, не допустив военных действий на своей
территории. Все это способствовало развитию высокому уровню жизни и
благосостоянию английского народа. Англичане не ощущали особой потребности
в национальном самоутверждении и в специальном дне для ликования по поводу
того, что они – британцы. Народ Соединенного Королевства не испытывал нужды
каждый год напоминать себе и другим, что, например, британский парламент,
возраст которого перевалил за семь столетий, становится еще на год старше
или что тред-юнионы - самые старые профсоюзы в мире. Правда, в последние
годы существования Британской империи был введен День империи, но отмечался
он недолго, а выходным был лишь для школьников и учителей. В 1958 году его
заменил День Содружества, который с 1966 года отмечается в июне как
официальный день рождения монарха. Англичане рассуждают примерно так: «Мы
уже достаточно веско заявили миру о себе, чтобы не повторяться теперь
ежегодно». Но национальный праздник все-таки необходим для официальных
целей – так, за границей послам полагается устраивать приемы в честь дня
своей страны, они выступают по телевидению той страны, где представляют
свою родину и т. д.
Национальным праздником Соединенного Королевства является день рождения
монарха, о котором уже было сказано. А сейчас я хочу остановиться на том
особенном, что характерно для некоторых англо-говорящих стран.

“Do you speak English?” with this phrase begins the conversation
between two people, that speak different languages and want to find a
common language.
It’s very good when you hear: “Yes I do”, and start talking. People of
different countries and nations have to get along well with the progress in
world trade and technology as well as with each other.
So it is very useful to learn foreign languages. Knowledge of foreign
languages helps us to develop friendship and understanding among people.
English is very popular now. It’s the language of computers, science,
business, sport and politics. It is official language of United Kingdom,
Ireland, the United States of America, Canada, Australia. There are more
than 1 billion speakers of English of the World.
Speaking a foreign language you are read papers, magazines, and
original books by great writers, watch satellite TV Programs. If you like
traveling you can go anywhere without being afraid that other people will
not understand you. English is very important to find a good job.



USA


Independence Day


On July 4 the Americans celebrate their national holiday-independence
Day. The United States gained independence as a result of gradual and
painful process. By the mid 1700’s it became difficult for thirteen British
colonies in the New World to be ruled by a kind 3000 miles across the
ocean. The British Empire imposed high taxes upon the colonies.
In 1774, the First Continental Congress drew up a list of grievances
against the British crown. This document was the first draft of the
document that would formally separate colonies from England. In 1755, the
Revolutionary War began. On July 2, 1776, the Second Continental Congress
presented a second draft of the list of grievances. On July 4 the
Continental Congress approved the declaration of Independence. But the War
of independence lasted until 1783. After the war Independence Day became an
official holiday.
On July 4, Americans have holiday from work. People have day-long
picnic with favorite foods like hot dog, hamburgers, potato salad, baked
beans. Lively music is heard everywhere. People play baseball or compete
three-legged races or pie-eating or water-melon-eating contests. Some
cities have parades with people dressed as the original founding fathers
who march to the music of high school bands. In the evening people gather
to watch firework displays. Wherever Americans are around the globe they
will get together to celebrate Independence Day.

Sport


Americans’ interest in sport seems excessive to many foreign visitors.
Television networks spend millions of dollars arranging to telecast sport
events. Publications about sports sell widely. In the US professional
athletes can became national heroes.
Sports are associated with educational institutions in a way is unique.
High schools have coaches as faculty members, and school teams compete with
each other.
Nowhere else in the world are sports associated with colleges and
universities in the way they are in the States. College sports, especially
football, are conducted in an atmosphere of intense excitement and
pageantry. Games between teams attract nationwide television audiences
The sport that is most popular in most of the world-soccer-is not well
known in the US. The most popular sports are football and baseball, games
that are not played in large number of countries.
Spots play such an important role in American life that the sociology
of sport, sport medicine, and sport psychology have become respectable
specializations.
Many Americans jog every day, or play tennis or bridge two or three
times a week. They go on ski trips and hunting expeditions that require
weeks of planning and organizing. In Americans’ view, all these activities
are worth the discomfort they may cause because they contribute to health
and physical fitness. That is probably why Americans are known as a healthy
nation.
Americans are very fond of sport. The most popular sports in USA are
football, baseball, basketball and ice hockey.
American football derives from the English game of rugby. It started at
Harvard University in the1870’s. It is a game for two teams of eleven men
on field. The object of the game is to have control of the ball and to
score points by carrying it across the goal-line.
Baseball is a team game derived from the English game of cricket. It is
played with a bat and ball by two teams of nine players each, on a field
with four bases. Baseball is the national game in the USA and it is very
popular in Canada too.
Basketball is a game which nowadays is popular all over the world. It
was invented in 1891. During the ‘20s the first US league championship was
organized. In the ‘70s the American Championship was divided into two
leagues: the ABA (American Basketball Association), which does not exist
any longer and which played with a blue, red and white ball and NBA
(National Basketball Association).
The NBA is a professional league which still plays.
There are more activities which Americans take part in such as golf,
swimming, tennis, aerobics, wrestling, etc.


Halloween


Halloween is a festival that takes place on October 31. In the us
children wear costumes and masks and go trick-or-treating. Many of them
carve jack-o’-lantens out of pumpkins. Fortunetelling and storytelling
about ghosts and witches are popular activities.
Halloween developed from new year festivals and festivals of the dead.
Christian church established a festival on November 1 called All Saints’
Day so that people could continue to celebrate their festivals. The Mass
said on All Saints’ Day was called Allhallowmass. The day before All Saints
Day was known all hallows Eve or Halloween.
The main Halloween activity for children is trick-or-treating. Children
dress in costumes and masks and go from door to door saying “trick or
treat”. The neighbors give children such treats as candy, fruit and pennies
so that children do not play tricks on them.
Jack-o’-lanterns are hallowed-out pumpkins with face carved into one
side. Most jack-o-lanterns contain a cantle inside. An Irish legend says
that jack-o’-lanterns are named after the man called jack. He could not
enter heaven because he was a miser, and he could not enter hell because he
had played jokes on devil. As a result, Jack has to walk on the earth with
his lantern until Judgment Day.
Fortunetelling an important part of Halloween. For example, a coin, a
ring, and thimble were baked into a cake. It was believed that the person
who found the ring would marry soon. And the person who found the thimble
would never get married. Today people practice cardreading or palmistry.
People once believed that there were many ghosts and witches on the
Earth and that they met on October 31 to worship the devil. Today, people
do not believe in ghosts and witches but they like to tell stories about
them on Halloween.


Thanksgiving


Almost in every culture in the world there is a celebration of thanks
for rich harvest. The American Thanksgiving began as a feast of
thanksgiving almost four hundred years ago.
In 1620, a religious community sailed across the Atlantic Ocean to
settle in the New World. They settled in what is now known as the state of
Massachusettes. Their first winter in America was difficult. They arrived
too late to grow a rich harvest. Moreover, half the colony died from
disease. The following spring the Iroquois Indians taught them how to grow
corn. Indians showed them also how to grow other crops and how to hunt and
fish.
In the autumn of 1621 they got a beautiful harvest of corn, barley,
beans and pumpkins. The colonists had much to be thankful for, so they
planned a feast. Local Indian chief and ninety Indians were present. The
colonists learned from Indians how to cook cranberries and dishes of corn
and pumpkins.
In following years many of the colonists celebrated the harvest with a
feast of thanks. After the United States gained independence, Congress
recommended one yearly day of thanksgiving for the whole country. Later
George Washington suggested the date November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Than,
after the civil war, Abraham Lincoln suggested the last Thursday in
November to be the day of thanksgiving.
On Thanksgiving Day, family members gather at the house of an older
relative, even if they far away. All give thanks for everything good they
have. Charitable organizations offer traditional meal to homeless.
Foods, eaten at the first thanksgiving, have become traditional. The
traditional thanksgiving meal consists of roast turkey stuffed with herb-
flavored bread, cranberry jelly, mashed potatoes, pumpkin pie. Other dishes
may vary as to region: ham, sweet potatoes, creamed corn.


Christmas


Christmas is Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus
Christ. For millions of Christmas throughout the world it is the happiest
and the busiest time of the year. No one knows the exact date of Christ’s
birth but most Christians celebrate Christmas on December 25. The world
Christmas comes from Christes maesse, an early English phrase that means
Mass of Christ.
People of different countries celebrate Christmas in various ways.
People in the United States and Canada decorate their homes with Christmas
trees, wreaths and ornaments. City streets are filled with colored lights;
the sound of bells and Christmas carols can be heard everywhere.
Children write letters to Santa Claus and tell him what presents they
would like to get. Many department stores hire people to a Santa Claus
costume and listen to children’s requests. People send Christmas cards to
relatives and friends. Many companies give presents to their employees.
A Christmas tree is one of the main symbols of Christmas in most homes.
Relatives and friends may join in trimming the tree with lights, tinsel,
and colorful ornaments. Presents are placed under the tree. On Christmas
Eve or Christmas morning, families open their presents. Many children
believe that Santa Claus arrives on Christmas Eve in a sleigh pulled by
reindeer and brings present. Some children hang up stockings so Santa Claus
can fill them with candy, fruits and other small gifts.
In many parts of the United States and Canada groups of people walk
from house to house and sing Christmas carols. Some people give singers
money or small gifts or invite them for a warm drink. Many people attend
church services on Christmas Eve or Christmas morning. They listen to
readings from Bible and singing Christmas carols.
A traditional Christmas dinner consist of stuffed turkey, mashed
potatoes, cranberry sauce a variety of other dishes. Some families have ham
or roast goose instead of turkey. Pumpkin pie, plum pudding, and fruitcake
are favorite desserts.


Valentine’s Day


There are several legends about St. Valentine’s Day. One of the legends
says that Valentine was Christian pries who lived in the 3 century A.D. he
was put into prison by roman authorities for his teachings and was beheaded
on February cured his jailer’s daughter of her blindness. Before the
execution he wrote her a letter signed “From Your Valentine”. Another
legend says that the same Valentine wrote to children and friends who loved
him from the jail.
According to another legend, Valentine was an Italian bishop who lived
at about the same time. He was thrown into prison because he secretly
married couples, contrary to the laws of the Roman Empire. The legend says
that he was burnt at the stake.
February 14 was also a Roman holiday. On this day young men randomly
chose the name of the girl to escort to the festival. The custom of
choosing a sweetheart on this day became very popular in the medieval
Europe. Later this custom spread to American colonies.
Now, St. Valentine’s Day is the day of sweethearts. On this day, people
show their friends relatives and loved ones that they care. People send
candy of flowers to those whom they love. Most people send “valentines”,
greeting cards named after St. Valentine’s letters written from jail.
Valentines can be sentimental and romantic, or funny and friendly.
Valentines can be anonymous. Valentines can be heard-shaped or can carry
hearts on them. People buy valentines or make them themselves.


England



England is the largest and the richest country of Great Britain. The
capital of England is London but there are other large industrial cities,
such as Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester and other famous and interesting
cities such as York, Chester, Oxford and Cambridge.
Stonehenge is a one of the most famous prehistoric places in the world.
This ancient circle of stones stands in South-west England. It measures 30
metres across and made with massive blocks of stone up to four metres high.
Why it was built is a mystery.
Not far from Stonehenge stands Salisbury Cathedral. It is a splendid
example of an English Gothic Cathedral; inside there is one of four copies
of Magna Charta and the oldest clock in England.
Chester is very important town in the north-west of England. In the
past it used to be a Roman fort; its name comes from the Latin word castra,
meaning “fortified camp”. In Chester there is a famous museum which
contains over 5000 ancient and modern toys.
Oxford is the home of the oldest university of England. The most famous
college is Christ Church. It has a great hall which was build during the
reign of Henry 8 and its chapel has become the Cathedral of Oxford.
Cambridge is the capital of Britain’s second oldest university.
York was the capital of Northern England. It is one of the best
preserved medieval cities of Europe. It was build by Romans, conquered by
Anglo-Saxons and ruled by the Vikings. Birmingham is often called the “City
of 1500 trades” because of the great variety of its industries.



Ways of Everyday Live

Very often when speaking of English traditions we think first of some
curious theatrical ceremonies of the court* or parliament procedure. There
come to our mind the medieval uniforms of the guards, the solemn cloaks and
wigs of the judges or the top hats (bowlers) and the invariable umbrellas
of the clerks of the London City.
But the word “tradition” does not mean only that. First and foremost
“tradition” is the generally accepted made or way of living, acting,
behaving of just doing things. There are many very good traditions of this
kind in the everyday life of the English.


Everything is the Other Way Round

In England everything is the other way round. On Sunday on the
Continent even the poorest person puts on his best suit, tries to look
respectable, and at the same time the life of the country becomes gay and
cheerful; in England even the richest peer or motor-car manufacturer
dresses in some peculiar rags, does not shave, and the country becomes dull
and dreary.
On the Continent there is one topic, which should be avoided – the
weather; in England, if you do not repeat the phrase “Lovely day, isn’t
it?” at least two hundred times a day, you are considered a bit dull. On
the Continent Sunday papers appear on Monday; in England – a country of
exotic oddities – they appear on Sunday.
On a continental bus approaching a request stop the conductor rings the
bell if he wants his bus to go on without stopping; in England you ring the
bell if you want the bus to stop. On the Continent people have good food;
in England people have good table manners.
On the Continent public orators try to learn to speak fluently and
smoothly; in England they take a special course in Oxonian stuttering.
On the Continent learned person love to quote Aristotle, Horace,
Montaigne and show off their knowledge; in England only uneducated people
show off their knowledge, nobody quotes Latin or Greek authors in the
course of a conversation, unless he has never read them.
Continental people are sensitive and touchy; the English take
everything with an exquisite sense of humour – they are only offended if
you tell them that they have no sense of humour.
People on the Continent either tell you the truth or lie; in England
they hardly ever lie, but they would not – dream of telling you the truth.
Many continentals think life is a game; the English think cricket is a
game.


Lunch at 1 o’clock

Many foreigners are sometimes taken aback when they are faced with this
typically English custom for the first time.
Whatever one is doing, no matter how important it is, or seems to be –
a parliamentary debate or any kind of business routine – as soon as the
clock strikes one everybody breaks for lunch.
The time from one to two o’clock is a “sacred” hour in England. And it
appears to be not only good for health – having meals at regular times is
certainly healthy – but it is very convenient socially as well. Everybody
knows that there is no use trying to get in touch with some official,
business executive or firm representative at this time. They won’t be in.
it is no use no waste your time going from one shop to another at one
o’clock sharp they will open. For punctuality is also one of the English
traditions.


English Sunday

The so called Sunday Observance laws* prohibiting all kind of public
entertainment on Sunday date back to the 17-18 century. The idea was to
encourage people to go church and not to allow them “to profane the Lord’s
Day” by amusing themselves.
Three hundred years have passed since then. Church services are
attended by fewer people now than some decades ago. But the old custom of
having a quiet Sunday is still alive. This is another English tradition
preserved by law.
On Sunday you may visit a museum or go to a concert but all shops,
theatres, dance and music halls are closed. This is rather illogical when
compared with the unrestricted variety programmes on radio and television
or the fact that one can always go to the bingo-club to enjoy himself or to
the cinema to see a “thriller” or the latest American “hit”.
Pubs* and restaurants are open only from 12 to 2, and from 5 to 10 p.m.
The police are very strict and do not hesitate to withdraw the licence from
the proprietors who disregard closing time.



English Tea

The trouble with the tea is that originally is was quite a good drink.
So a group of the most eminent British scientists put their heads together,
and made complicated biological experiments to find a way of spoiling it.
To eternal glory of British science their labour bore fruit. They suggested
that if you do not drink it clear, or with lemon or rum and sugar, but pour
a few drops of cold milk into it, and no sugar at all, the desired object
is achieved. Once this refreshing, aromatic, oriental beverage was
successfully transformed into colorless and tasteless gargling-water*, it
suddenly became the national drink of Great Britain and Ireland – still
retaining, indeed usurping, the high-sounding title of tea.
There are some occasions when you must not refuse a cup of tea,
otherwise you are judged an exotic and barbarous bird without any hope of
ever being able to take your place in civilized society.
If you are invited to an English home, at five o’clock in the morning
you get a cup of tea. It is either brought in by a heartily smiling hostes
or an almost malevolently silent maid. When you are disturbed in your
sweetest morning sleep you must not say: “Madame (or Mabel), I think you
are a cruel, spiteful and malignant person who deserved to be shot.” On the
contrary, you have to declare with your best five o’clock smile: “Thank you
so much. I do adore a cup of early morning tea, especially early in the
morning.” If they live you alone with the liquid, you may pour it down the
washbasin.
Than you have tea for breakfast; then you have tea at eleven o’clock in
the morning; then after lunch; then you have tea for tea; then for supper;
and again at eleven o’clock at night. You mast not refuse any additional
cups of tea under the following circumstances: is it is hot; if it is cold;
if you are tired; if anybody thinks that you might be tired; if you are
nervous; if you are gay; before you go out; if you have just returned home;
if you feel like it; if you do not feel like it; if you have had no tea for
some time; if you have just had a cup…


Fireplaces

In English homes, the fireplace has always been, until recent times,
the natural center of interest in a room. People may like to sit at a
window on a summer day, but for many months of the year prefer to sit round
the fire and watch the dancing flames.
In the Middle Ages the fireplaces in the halls of large castles were
very wide. Only wood was burnt, and large logs were carted in from the
forests, and supported as they burnt, on metal bars. Such wide fireplaces
may still be seen in old inns, and in some of them there are even seats
inside the fireplace.
Elizabethan fireplaces often had carved stone or woodwork over the
fireplace, reaching to the ceiling. There were sometimes columns on each
side of the fireplace. In the 18th century, place was often provided over
the fireplace for a painting or mirror.
When coal fires became common, fireplaces became much smaller. Grates
were used to hold the coal. Above the fireplace there was usually a shelf
on which there was often a clock, and perhaps framed photographs.


Pubs

Do you know what a pub is? The Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary
defines it as a public house or building where people go to drink and to
meet their friends. English men like to get together in the pub in the
evening. The usual opening hours for pubs are on weekends from 11 a.m. to 3
p.m. and 5 p.m. to 10.30 p.m. On Sundays pubs may remain open for not more
than 5 and a half hours.
Pubs usually have two drinking rooms called bars - the public and the
saloon bar, which is more comfortable but more expensive. "Bar" also means
the counter at which drinks are served.
Pubs serve alcoholic and other drinks and often light meals. The main
drink served in pubs, is, of course, beer, light or dark. Light beer is
usually called bitter. As for other kinds of alcohol, most pubs serve
whisky, gin and wine. Beer is always sold in pint or half-pint glasses. A
pint is equivalent to 0.57 liter No alcoholic drinks may be served to young
people under eighteen under British law.
In Great Britain today there are some 80,000 pubs situated in different
cities, country towns, villages, and so on. Of London's 5.000 pubs some of
the most interesting are right by the River Thames, downstream as well as
up. Every English pub has its own sign and name. Some people refer to pub
signs as a great open-air portrait gallery, which covers the whole country.
But actually this gallery includes far more than portraits.
Some pub signs present different types of transport such as coaches,
trams, ships, airplanes and even flying boards. There are signboards
depicting animals, birds, fish as well as kings and queens, dukes and
lords, sailors, soldiers, fat men and giants. A first class example of an
heraldic pub sign is found near Leeds in
Yorkshire at Burley. The Butcher's Arms can be seen in Gloucestershire
on a small typical English country pub near Sheepscombe.
At Cheltenham also in the same county you will see a sign showing the
head of a horse, the name of the pub being Nags Head. At the village of
Slad, also in Gloucestershire you can have a pint of lager in Woolpack and
this pub sign shows a horse with two heavy packs of wool slung over it.
In Wales the most attractive sign in a number of pubs share the name of
Market Tavern because all of them are on the pubs adjoining the market
place.
In London the famous Sherlock Holmes pub with the big portrait of the
famous detective smoking his favourite pipe attracts thousands of visitors
to Northumberland Avenue.
History, geography, fairytales are kept alive by the name or sign of
the "local" (the neighbourhood pub). As history is being made, so the
owners of the pubs - usually the brewery companies - and individual
publicans are quick to record it by new signs. Typical example is the "Sir
Francis Chichester" named after the first man to sail alone around the
world.
Not all British pubs have individual signboards, but a considerable
effort is being made now to retain old signs. Jerome K. Jerome, the creator
of the internationally known book "Three Men In a Boat" over a hundred
years ago revealed himself at probably his most authoritative intro matter
or pubs. He clearly was a pub man and you can consider his famous book not
only a guidebook to the Thames but as the first of those now familiar
surveys of recommended places where to sleep, eat and enjoy beer. But in
many pubs one can also enjoy some traditional pub games. There are darts,
cards, skittles, coin games and various table games, of which playing darts
is the oldest one.
Some of these games are difficult to find, as pubs have updated their
amenities by offering TV and video games, such as two-men tennis, fruit
machines, pinball machines, and so on. There are also other pub
entertainments, such as piano playing, folk-singing, jazz performances and
even theatres. However, if such table games as billiards or table football
which are played with two or four players as well as cards, dominoes and
coin games are known in this country, skittles and darts are less familiar.
Skittles is one of the oldest pub games and dates back to medieval
England, the object of the game being to knock down as many skittles as
possible with a wooden ball. This pub game has lots of variations all over
Britain. Darts is also an old game, ' which was played by the Pilgrims in
1620 when they sailed, from England to the New World. That is why it is
well known in the USA, too. To play this game one must first of all have a
standard dartboard with numbers marked on it to indicate score. The outer
ring counts double, the middle one treble while at the very centre is the
bull (50) with its own outer circle (25). Dart players should stand at
least eight feet away from the board. The aim of the game is to score as
quickly as possible with the least number, of throws. The actual score a
player must get depends on the variety of game he is playing. Many pubs in
Great Britain have their own darts teams. So, if you come to Britain drop
in a pub, enjoy a pint of bitter and a "tongue sandwich, which speaks for
itself”.
It sounds funny to foreigners but when it is closing time, the pub
barman calls "Time!" or "Time, gentlemen, pleaser!”


English Habits of Politeness

Some greetings in England are very informal: a simple “good morning” or
a wave of the hand across the street is quite enough. Handshakes are only
exchanged on a first introduction or as a token of agreement or
congratulation. “Sorry” takes the place of “no” when you cannot do
something for a person or give a positive answer in situation like “May I
use your pen?”, “Do you know the time?” or “Have you any size seven
shoes?”. “Pardon” is the polite way of asking somebody to repeat what he
has said.
English people do not readily ask each other to do anything, they
prefer to wait for a service to be offered before asking for it. If they do
ask, then they say something like “I don’t really like asking you, but…”
It is considered polite to give up one’s seat a woman who is standing,
to open door for her, carry things for her, and so on.


Manners in Public

Our manners in public, like our manners in our homes, are based on self-
respect and consideration for other people.
It is really surprising how stingy we are with our “Please” when we ask
anyone to do something for us. We unwillingly part with our “Thank you”, as
if it were the most difficult and costly thing in the world. We don’t stand
aside for others to pass us in the trams, buses or the underground. We
don’t rice to let people pass us to their seats in the theatres or movies.
1.Not to make yourself conspicuous, not to attract unfavourable
attention to yourself or others, here are some of the rules for correct
behaviour in a public place.
2.Not to be conspicuous, don’t wear conspicuous clothes.
3.One should not talk loud or laugh loud.
4.No matter how trying the circumstance, do not give way to anger or
uncontrolled emotion.
5.Never eat anything in the street, or in a public place (restaurants,
buffets and cafes excluded).
6.Do not rudely push your way through crowds.
7.Never stare at people or point at them.
8.Do not ridicule or comment on anyone in public.
9.Reserve “affectionate demonstration” (kissing, embracing, etc.) for
appropriate places.
10.Don’t monopolise the sidewalk, by walking 3 or 4 abreast, or by
stopping in the centre to speak with someone.
When in the street keep to the right.



British institutes


Parliament is the most important authority in Britain. Parliament first
met in the 13th century. Britain does not have a written constitution, but
a set of laws. In 1689 Mary II and William III became the first
constitution monarchs. They could rule only with the support of the
Parliament. Technically Parliament is made up of three parts: the Monarch,
the House of Lords and the House of Commons.
The continuity of the English monarchy has been interrupted only once
during the Cromwell republic. Succession to the throne is hereditary but
only for Protestants in the direct line of descent. Formally the monarch
has a number of roles. The monarch is expected to be politically neutral,
and should not make political decisions. Nevertheless, the monarch still
performs some important executive and legislative duties including opening
and dissolving Parliament, singing bills passed by both Houses and
fulfilling international duties as head of state. The present sovereign is
Queen Elizabeth II who was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1953.
The House of Lords comprises about 1,200 peers. The house is presided
over by the Lord Chancellor. The House of Lords has no real power but acts
as an advisory council for the House of Commons. As well as having
legislative functions, the Lords is the highest court of appeal.
The House of Commons consist of members of Parliament who are elected
by the adult suffrage of the British people in general elections which are
held at least every five years. The country is divided into 650
constituencies each of which elects one Member of Parliament. The Commons
therefore, has 650 Members of Parliament. The party which wins the most
seats forms the Government and its leader becomes the Prime Minister. The
functions of Commons are registration and security of government
activities. The house is presided over by the Speaker. The government party
sits on the Speaker’s right while on his left sit the members of the
Opposition.


Education in Britain



In England and Wales compulsory school begins at the age of five, but
before that age children can go to a nursery school, also called play
school. School in compulsory till the children are 16 years old.
In Primary School and First School children learn to read and write and
the basis of arithmetic. In the higher classes of Primary School (or in
Middle School) children learn geography, history, religion and, in some
schools, a foreign language. Than children go to Secondary School.
When students are 16 years old they may take an exam in various
subjects on order to have a qualification. These qualifications can be
either G.C.S.E. (General Certificate of Secondary education) or “O level”
(ordinary level). After that students can either leave school and start
working or continue their studies in the same school as before. If they
continue, when they are 18, they have to take further examinations which
are necessary for getting into university or college.
Some parents choose private schools for their children. They are very
expensive but considered to provide a better education and good job
opportunities.
In England there are 47 universities, including the Open University
which teaches via TV and radio, about 400 colleges and institutes of higher
education. The oldest universities in England are Oxford and Cambridge.
Generally, universities award two kinds of degrees: the Bachelor’s degree
and the Master’s degree.

Cambridge

Cambridge is situated at a distance of 70 miles from London; the
greater part of the town lies on the left bank of the river Cam crossed by
several bridges.
Cambridge is one of the loveliest towns of England. It is very green
presenting to a visitor a series of beautiful groupings of architecture,
trees, gardens, lawns and bridges. The main building material is stone
having a pinkish color which adds life and warms to the picture at all
seasons of the year.
The dominating factor in Cambridge is University, a center of education
and learning. Newton, Byron, Darwin, Rutherford and many other scientists
and writers were educated at Cambridge. In Cambridge everything centers on
the university and its Colleges, the eldest of which was founded in 1284.
They are 27 in number. The college is a group of buildings forming a square
with a green lawn in the center. An old tradition does not allow the
students to walk on the grass, this is the privilege of professors and head-
students only. There is another tradition which the students are to follow:
after sunset they are not allowed to go out without wearing a black cap and
a black cloak.
The University trains about 7.000 students. They study for 4 years, 3
teams a year. The long vacation lasts 3 months. They are trained by a
tutor; each tutor has 10-12 students reading under his guidance. There is a
close connection between the University and colleges, through they era
separate in theory and practice.
A college is a place where you live no matter what profession you are
trained for; so that students studying literature and those trained for
physics belong to one and the same college. However the fact is that you
are to be a member of a college in order to be a member of the University.

The students eat their meals in the college dining-hall. At some
colleges there is a curious custom known as “sooncing”. If a should come
late to dinner or not be correctly dressed or if he should break one of the
little unwritten laws of behaviour, then the senior student present may
order him to be “soonced”. The Butler brings in a large silver cup, known
as “sconce cup”, filled with offender, who must drink it in one attempt
without taking the cup from his lips. (It holds two and half pints). If he
succeeds then the senior student pays for it, if not, the cup is passed
round the table at the expense of the student who has been “sconced”. Now
the origin of this custom.
Until 1954, undergraduates (students studying for the first degree)
had to wear cloaks, called gowns, after dark, but now they are only obliged
to wear them for dinner and some lectures. This tradition is disappearing,
but one which is still upheld is that of punting on the Cam. It is a
favorite summer pastime for students to take food, drink, guitars (or,
alas, transistor radios) and girl friends on to a punt (a long, slim boat,
rather like a gondola) and sail down the rive, trying very hard to forget
about exams. Many students feel that they have not been christened into the
University until they have fallen into the River Cam. This has almost
become a tourist attraction.
Students also have an official excuse to “let themselves loose” once a
year (usually in November) on Rag Day*.
On this day, hundreds of different schemes are thought up to collect
money for charity, and it is not unusual to see students in the streets
playing guitars, pianos, violins, singing, dancing, eating fire, fishing in
drains for money, or even just lying in beds suspended over the street
swinging a bucket for money to be thrown into.
On May 21st every year, Eton College and King’s College, Cambridge,
honour the memory of their founder, Henry VI, who died very suddenly, and
was almost certainly murdered, in the Tower of London on that day in 1471.
he is generally supposed to have been killed whilst at prayer in the
Oratory of the Wakefield Tower, and here, on the anniversary, the Ceremony
of the lilies and Roses now takes place. Representatives of both colleges
walk in procession with Beefeaters and the Chaplain of the Tower, and the
short service is conducted by the latter, during which a player composed by
Henry himself is said. A marble tablet in the in the Oratory marks the
place where the King is believed to have died, and on each side of it
flowers are laid - lilies from Eton bound with pale blue silk, and white
roses from King’s College, bound with purple ribbon. They are left there
for twenty-four hours, and then they are burnt.



Transport in Britain


You can reach England either by plane, by train, by car or by ship. The
fastest way is by plane. London has three international airports: Heathrow,
the largest, connected to the city by underground; Gatwick, south of
London, with a frequent train service; Luton, the smallest, used for
charter flights.
If you go to England by train or by car you have to cross the Channel.
There is a frequent service of steamers and ferry-boats which connect the
continent to the south-east of England.
People in Britain drive on the left and generally overtake on right.
The speed limit is 0 miles per hour (50km/h) in towns and cities and 70 mph
(110 km/h) on motorways.
When you are in London you can choose from different means of
transport: bus, train, underground or taxi. The typical bus in London is a
red double-decker. The first London bus started running between Paddington
and the City in 1829. It carried 40 passengers and cost a shilling for six
kms.
The next to arrive were the trains; now there are twelve railway
stations in London. The world’s first underground line was opened between
Baker St. and the City in 1863. Now there are ten underground lines and 273
underground is also called the Tube, because of the circular shape of its
deep tunnels.


British Literature


Great Britain gave the world a lot of talented people. Many famous
writers and poets were born in Great Britain.
One of the best known English playwrights was William Shakespeare. He
draw ideas for his tragedies and comedies from the history of England and
ancient Rome. Many experts consider Shakespeare the greatest writer and the
greatest playwright in England language. William Shakespeare wrote 37 plays
which may be divided into: comedies (such as A Midsummer Night’s Dream),
tragedies (such as Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth) and historical
plays (such as Richard II, Henry V, Julius Caesar, Anthony and Cleopatra).
Robert Burns represents the generation of Romantic writers. In his
poems he described with love and understanding the simple life he knew.
Among his well-known poems are Halloween, The Jolly Beggars, To a Mouse.
George Gordon Lord Byron. His free-spirited lie style combined with his
poetic gift makes him one of the most famous figures of the Romantic Era.
His famous works such as Stanzas to Augusta, The Prisoner of Chillon,
Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, Manfred draw readers into the passion, humors
and conviction of a poet whose life and work truly embodied the Romantic
spirit.
Sir Walter Scott wrote the first examples of historical novel; Lewis
Carroll became famous when he published Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.


Places of Interest in Great Britain


Britain is rich in its historic places which link the present with the
past.
The oldest part of London is Lud Hill, where the city was originated.
About a mile west of it there is Westminster Palace, where the king lived
and the Parliament met, and there is also Westminster Abbey, the coronation
church.
Liverpool, the “city of ships”, is England’s second greatest port
ranking after London. The most interesting sight in the Liverpool is the
docks. They occupy a river frontage of seven miles. The University of
Liverpool, established in 1903, is noted for its school of Tropical
Medicine. And in the music world Liverpool is a well-known name, for it’s
the town of “The Beatles”.
Stratford-on-Avon lies 93 miles north-west of London. Shakespeare was
born here in1564, and here he died in 1616. Cambridge and Oxford
Universities are famous centers of learning.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument, presumably build by Druids,
members of an order of priests in ancient Britain. Tintagel Castle is King
Arthur’s reputed birthplace. Canterbury is the seat of the Archbishop o
Canterbury, head of the Church of England.
The British Museum is the largest and riches museum in the world. It
was founded in 1753 and contains one of the world’s richest collections of
antiquities. The Egyptian Galleries contain human and animal mummies. Some
parts of Athens’ Parthenon are in the Greek section.
Madam Tussaud’s Museum is an exhibition of hundreds of life-size wax
models of famous people of yesterday and today. The collection was started
by Madam Tussaud, a French modeler in wax, in the 18 century. Here you can
meet Marilyn Monroe, Elton John, Picasso, the Royal family, the Beatles and
many others: writers, movie stars, singers, politicians, sportsmen, etc.


Sports in Great Britain


British people are very fond of sports. Sport is a part of their normal
life. The two most popular games are football and cricket.
Football, also called soccer, is the most popular sport in the United
Kingdom. England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own
Football Leagues and national teams. Games are played on Saturday
afternoons from August to April. In addition to the FL games there is a
competition called the Football Associations Cup. The Cup Final is played
at Wembley Stadium(London) in May.
Cricket is considered to be the English National game. Its rules are
very complicated. Two teams of eleven men each play it, the player at a
time tries to hit ball with a bat.
Golf is the Scottish national game. It originated in the XV century and
the most famous golf course in the world, known as a Royal and Ancient
Club, is at St. Andrew’s.
Lawn tennis was first played in Britain in the late 19th century. The
most famous British championship is Wimbledon, played annually during the
last week of June and the fist week of July.
Those are the most popular kinds of sport in the UK. But there are many
other sports such as rugby, golf, swimming, horse-racing and the
traditional fox-hunting.


Scotland



Scotland is a country in the north of Great Britain. It is a part of
the United Kingdom. Scotland is divided into three natural regions: the
Southern Uplands, the Central Lowlands and the highlands and islands. A lot
of places in Scotland are a natural paradise, still untouched by man.
The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh, well known for its castle.
Glasgow is the industrial capital of Scotland. It us the third largest city
in Great Britain. The typical products of Scotland are timber, whisky,
salmon. Golf is the Scottish natural sport it seems to have originated in
this country.

Scottish Traditions


The thistle is the national emblem of Scotland. This is how, according
to a curious legend, this plant came to be chosen as a badge, in preference
to any other. Many years ago the Vikings once landed somewhere on the east
coast of Scotland. The Scots assembled with their arms and took their
stations behind the River Tay. As they arrived late in the day, weary and
tired after a long march, they pitched their camp and rested, not expecting
the enemy before the next day. The Vikings, however, were near: noticing
that no guards were protecting the camp, they crossed the Tay, intending to
take the Scots by surprise. For this purpose they took off their shoes so
as to make the least possible noise. But one of them stepped on a thistle.
The sudden and sharp pain he felt caused him to shriek. The alarm was given
in the Scots' camp. The Vikings were put to fight, and as an
acknowledgement for the timely and unexpected help from the thistle, the
Scots took it as their national emblem.

The Scottish national costume (Highland dress) includes a kilt worn by
men. For day wear, the kilt is worn with a tweed jacket, plain long socks,
a beret and a leather sporran, that is, a pouch hanging from a narrow belt
round the hips. The Scottish beret - tam-o'-shanter - is a woollen cap
without a brim but with a pompon or a feather on top, traditionally worn
pulled down at one side. It got its name after Tam o' Shanter, the hero of
Burns's poem of that name.

The Clan
The Gaelic word "clan" means "children", and the central idea of a clan
is kinship. Nowadays it refers, as a rule, only to Highland families, in
Scotland. A clan is a family, and theoretically the chief is the father of
it, although not every clansman can be a direct descendant of the founder.
Many people in Scotland today will be surprised to learn that those who
founded the present clans were not themselves always Highlanders, but
included Normans (Gordon, Eraser), Bretons (Stuart), Flemings (Murrey,
Sutherland). Irish (MacNeil), and Norsemen (MacLeod), Mac meaning "son of".
Concerning that early period of their settlement, which was between the
eleventh and fourteenth centuries, we must not be dogmatic on the subject
of nationality; the important point is that all these were "incomers" to
the Highlands.
When the incomers acquired their land they virtually took over a good
many people who were living on it, and who, perhaps, were already formed
into a family or clan unit. Gradually the old clan came to acknowledge the
protection of their new leader, and at last built up a nominal kinship with
him. In course of time intermarriage made it difficult to determine how
far this kinship was nominal and how far real.
Under the patriarchal system of clanship, which reached its peak in the
sixteenth century, order of precedence was strictly observed. First, after
the chief himself, came members of his immediate family, his younger sons
and grandsons, and then the clansmen. All of them, whether connected by
blood or not, owned a common heritage of loyalty as clansmen. In return for
the help and support of his clansmen, the chief was their leader in war and
their arbiter in peace. Even in the early days the king was, in theory at
least, the "chief of chiefs", and as the royal power spread through the
Highlands the chiefs were made responsible for the good conduct of their
clansmen. Among the most famous clans were: Campbell, Fraser, Munro,
Cameron, Stewart, Murray, MacDonald, Maclean and Mackenzie.
The great period of the clans declined by the beginning of the
eighteenth century and the failure of the Jacobite Risings in 1715 and 1745
completed the destruction. But today clan societies flourish in Scotland
and, perhaps more ' bravely, elsewhere in the world. These societies are
acquiring land and property in their respective clan countries, financing
magazines, establishing museums to preserve the relics, founding
educational trusts, and - perhaps above all - keeping alive the family
spirit.

The Tartan
Tartan is and has for centuries been the distinguishing mark of the
Highlander. It has a long history. Evidence can be brought to show that as
long as the thirteenth century, and probably earlier, Highlanders wore
brightly coloured striped or checked tartan plaids, which they called
"breacan". There is some controversy about clan tartans as such.
Traditionalists state the Highlanders wore tartan as a badge so that they
could recognize each other and distinguish friend from foe in battle. Like
many theories, this looks well on paper, but in practice it seems to break
down. Even though the old tartans were simpler than the modern ones, they
could not easily be recognized at a distance.
On the other hand, various descriptions can be quoted to show that, in
the Highlands, the patterns of the tartans were considered important. A
district tartan is a very natural development in a country divided into
small communities. By the sixteenth century the particular patterns of
tartan worn in a district were connected with the predominant local clan.
But the study of the portraits shows that there was no uniformity of tartan
even in the early eighteenth century. Members of the same family are found
wearing very different tartan and, what is more surprising, many of the men
are seen to wear the kilt of one tartan and a Jacket of another. The
history of development of tartan was sharply broken in 1747, when wearing
of Highland dress was forbidden by law after the failure of 1745.
In the early years of the nineteenth century efforts were made to
collect authentic patterns of each clan tartan, but this does not seem to
have been very successful. The fashion for tartan was fostered by the
amazing spectacle of a kilted King George IV at holyrood in 1822, and
demands for clan tartan poured into the manufactures. The wave of
enthusiasm for tartan outstripped the traditional knowledge of the
Highlanders, and it was at this time and in response to popular demand that
a great many of familiar present-day tartans became associated with their
respective clans. Some of the patterns had previously been identified by
numbers only, while some were invented on the spot, as variations of the
old traditional patterns.
The term "Highland dress'' has not always meant the same thing. In the
seventeenth century the ki1t was not worn. Clansmen wrapped themselves in a
generous length of tartan cloth some sixteen feet wide. The upper portion
covered the wearer's shoulders, and it was belted at the waist, the lower
portion hanging in rough folds to the knees. In the eighteenth century,
this belted plaid was superseded by the kilt. Modern Highland dress
consists of a day-time kilt of heavy material, sometimes in a darker
tartan, worn with a tweed jacket, while for the evening finer material,
possibly in a brighter "dress" tartan, can be matched with a variety of
accessories.

Food and Drink
What sort of food has Scotland to offer the stranger? Scotland produces
a number of dishes: Scots collops - a savoury dish popularly known as
"mince", small mutton pies which must be served piping hot and the immortal
haggis. And no country has a greater variety of puddings and pies, creams,
jellies, and trifles.
The excellence of Scottish soups has been attributed to the early and
long connection between Scotland and France, but there are some genuine
soups, such as Barley Broth, Powsowdie or Sheep’s Head Broth. Hotch Potch
or Harvest Broth. Baud Bree (Hare Soup) is flavoured with toasted oatmeal
and Cullen Skink is made with a smoked haddock.
Plenty of ingenuity is shown, too, in the preparation of both oatmeal
and milk. Porridge, properly made with home-milled meal and fresh spring
water, and served with thin cream or rick milk, is food for the gods.
Lastly there is the national oatcake, which is described as “a masterpiece”
by the French gastronomes.
As a nation the Scots are definitely better bakers than cooks. To beat
the best Edinburgh bakers one must go, it is said, all the way to Vienna.
There is an endless variety of bannocks and scones: soda scones, made with
buttermilk, girdle scones, potato scones, without which no Glasgow Sunday
breakfast is complete. Also the pancakes, the crumpets, the shortbread that
melts in the mouth, buns of every size and shape! They are on offer in
every bakery.
The Scottish housewife likes to buy her meat fresh and sees that she
gets it. She likes the meat off the bone and rolled, as in France, and the
Scottish butcher is an artist at his trade. Most of the cuts are different
from England and have different names. Sirloin, one would understand, but
what is Nine Holes? Steak is steak in any language, but what is Pope's
eye?
And then the puddings! The black puddings, the white puddings, the
mealy puddings. And king of puddings, the haggis! I once asked a Scot:
"What's in a haggis?" His answer was: "I know. But I know no reason why you
should. All you need to know is that it should be served with mashed
potatoes and bashed neeps (turnips), and you must drink whisky with it. You
will discover that the oatmeal in the haggis absorbs the whisky, and so you
can drink more of it. What else do you need to know?" "A recipe of
haggis", was my answer. "Hell, well, here you are", said my friend: B
ounces of sheep's liver, 4 ounces of beef suet (fat), salt and pepper, 2
onions, 1 cup of oatmeal. Boil the liver and onions in water for 40
minutes. Drain, and keep the liquid. Mince the liver finely, and chop the
onions with the suet. Lightly toast the oatmeal. Combine all the
ingredients, and moisten the mixture with the liquid in which the liver and
onions were boiled. Turn into a sheep's stomach, cover with grease-proof
paper and steam for 2 hours.
Although the Scots are not a nation of beer-drinkers in the sense that
the English are, some of the best beers in the world are brewed in the
Lowlands of Scotland. But however good Scots beer and ale are, it is
universally known that the glory of the country is whisky. Scotch whisky
was a by-product of traditional Scottish thrift. Frugal Scots farmers,
rather than waste their surplus barley, mashed, fermented and distilled it,
producing a drink at first called uisge beatha, Gaelic for "water of life",
and now simply called whisky. No one knows when the Scots learnt the art of
distilling, though it may have been before they arrived from Ireland in the
fifth century AD, for in Irish legend St Patrick taught the art. The first
mention in Scottish records of a spirit distilled from grain does not occur
before 1494.
Today there are two kinds of Scotch whisky - the original malt whisky,
made by the centuries-old pot-still process from barley that has been
"mailed" or soaked and left to germinate; and grain whisky, made from maize
as well as matted and unmalted barley. Most of the well-known brands of
Scotch whisky are blends of many different grain and malt whiskies. The
technique of blending was pioneered in Edinburgh in the 1860s, and a taste
for the new, milder blended whiskies quickly spread to England and then to
the rest of the world.
Barley is the raw material of the malt whisky distiller. The first
process in making whisky is mailing - turning barley into malt. Mailing
begins when the distiller takes delivery of the barley, usually in
September or October, soon after it has been harvested. The barley is in
grain form, and must be ripe and dry, otherwise it may turn mouldy and make
properly controlled mailing impossible. The barley is cleaned, weighed and
soaked for two or three days in tanks of water. Then it is spread on the
malting floor, where it germinates for 8-12 days, secreting an enzyme which
makes the starch in barley soluble and prepares it turning into sugar. The
barley is regularly turned over to control its temperature and rate of
germination. The warm, damp, sweet-smelling barley is passed to the kiln
for drying, which stops germination. It is spread on a base of perforated
iron and dried in the heat of a peat fire. Distillery kilns have
distinctive pagoda-shaped heads. An open ventilator at the top draws hot
air from the peat fire through the barley. This gives it a smoky flavour,
which is passed on to the whisky. The barley has now become malt - dry,
crisp, peat-flavored, different from the original barley in all but
appearance. It is ready for the next stage in the process - mashing. It is
stored in bins and then it is weighed to ensure that the right amount of
malt is passed to the mill below, where it is ground. The ground malt,
called grist, is carried up to the grist hopper and fed in measured
quantities into the mash tun. There the grist is mixed with hot water and
left to infuse. This extracts the sugar content from the malt. The sugary
water, called wort, is then drawn off through the bottom of the mash tun.
This process is repeated three times, and each time the water is at a
different temperature.
For centuries, Scotch whisky has been made from mailed barley mixed
with yeast and water, then heated in pear-shaped containers called pot
stills. The early Highland farmers who distilled their own whisky heated
their pot stills in huge copper kettles over a peat fire. Smoke from the
peat added to the whisky's flavour. Big modern distillers use basically the
same technique. The vapor that rises in the still is condensed by cooling
to make whisky. The shape of the still affects the vapor and so helps to
give the whisky its taste. The most important single influence on the taste
of Scotch whisky is probably the Scottish water. This is why distilleries
are situated in narrow glens or in remote country near a tumbling stream.
The whisky comes colorless and fiery from the spirit receiver. In the
spirit vat it is diluted to about 110 degrees proof before being run into
oak casks to mature. Today, 100 degrees proof spirit by British standards
is spirit with 37.1 per cent of alcohol by volume, and 42.9 per cent of
water.
Scotch whisky cannot legally be sold for consumption until it has
matured in casks for at least three years. The time a whisky takes to
mature depends on the size of the casks used, the strength at which the
spirit is stored and the temperature and humidity of the warehouse. A good
malt whisky may have been left in the cask for 15 years, or even longer.
Air enters the oak casks and evaporation takes place. Eventually, the
whisky loses its coarseness and becomes smooth and mellow.
There are more than 100 distilleries in Scotland and the whisky made in
each has its own distinctive character. Some distilleries bottle part of
their spirit and sell it as a single whisky; but most whiskies go to a
blender. As many as 40 different single whiskies may be blended to make up
the whisky that is eventually sold. So specifically

Новинки рефератов ::

Реферат: Управление конфликтами (Социология)


Реферат: Образ Петербурга в романе Достоевского "Преступление и наказание" (Литература : русская)


Реферат: Анализ использования основных фондов предприятия (Бухгалтерский учет)


Реферат: Блок усиления мощности нелинейного локатора (Радиоэлектроника)


Реферат: Историческая личность Федора Федоровича Раскольникова (История)


Реферат: Основные этапы развития культуры Египта (Культурология)


Реферат: Физическая связь (Химия)


Реферат: Вредное воздействие нитратов и нитритов на организм человека (Спорт)


Реферат: Российская школа как историко-культурный феномен европейского образования (Педагогика)


Реферат: Формирование у учеников ответственного отношения к учебе во время самостоятельной работы (Педагогика)


Реферат: История международного морского права (Международное частное право)


Реферат: Никон и возникновение раскола (История)


Реферат: Автомобильные перевозки (Транспорт)


Реферат: Героизм русского народа в великой отечественной войне (История)


Реферат: Астат (Химия)


Реферат: 1905 год. Революция (История)


Реферат: Налог на имущество, переходящее в порядке наследования и дарения (Налоги)


Реферат: Взаимодействие человека и организации (Менеджмент)


Реферат: Международные стандарты бухгалтерского учета (IAS) (Бухгалтерский учет)


Реферат: Новгород в XII – XV веках (История)



Copyright © GeoRUS, Геологические сайты альтруист